Psychology­ the study of human mind and human behavior

Assumptions of Science:

  • There is order in the universe
  • Determinism­ every event has physical, potentially measurable cause o Does not take into account free will o Things happen for reason
  • Skepticism­ an attitude that doubts all claims not supported by solid research evidenceshow data
  • Accuracy­ as error free as possible
  • Objectivity­ free of bias AMAP o Questions

o Interpretation

  • Open­mindedness­ Change

Goals of Scientific Research

  • Description­ the citing of the observable characteristics of an event, object, or individual; as it exists, no manipulation, new/rare to field
    • Systematic­ describe what is relevant
    • Precise­ use of #s for measurement; concrete descriptions AMAP
    • Operational definitions­ define behavior or qualities in terms of the procedures used to measure or produce them

 Ex­ Drunk, use Blood Alcohol Content

  • Prediction­ What should happen next; Psychologists want to make predictions in form of hypotheses about changes in behavior, mental experiences, or physiological processes o Hypothesis­ testable prediction about a relationship usually derived from a theory o Theory­ set of statements that summarize and explain research findings from which research hypotheses can be derived
  • Control­ manipulate factors that effect thought/behavior o Experimental control­ research­ control as many factors as possible o Everyday control­ application of research findings to control behavior
  • Explanation­ discover of causes of overt behaviors, mental experiences, and physiological processes

Scientific Method

  • Provide a rationale and review the relevant literature o Identify the problem of interest­ area of study o Review the relevant research literature­ several reasons
    • Operational differences­ same concept questions
    • Avoid needless replication
    • Research into broader context
    • Exposure to other theories
  • Develop a Testable Hypothesis­ testable prediction about the relationship between 2 or more events or characteristics
  • Design the study and collect the data o Decide on the research procedure to use o Collect the data
  • Analyze the data and accept/reject the hypothesis o Apply statistics to the data
    • Descriptive statistics­ summarize 1 group at a time

 Mean, Variability

  • Inferential Statistics­ compare groups o Discuss the implications of the research findings in regard to the research hypothesis
  • Publish, Replicate, and seek scientific review o Publish the findings o Replicate the study
    • Replicate the exact study with different participants­ within reason to make sure there was no fluke
    • Replicate study with systematic variation of relevant variables Build a Theory

Types of Research

  • Descriptive Research­ researcher simply records what he/she has systematically observed. o NO causation or prediction o Several methods used:
    • Naturalistic observation­ participants are studies in their natural environment­ don’t know they are being observed

Hawthorne Effect­ change behavior because they know they are being observed

  • Ethnographic research­ researcher spends a lot of time with the people they are researching, usually living with them.

 Especially useful when studying other cultures

  • Archival Research­ examines collections of letters, manuscripts, tape recordings, video recordings, etc.

 Useful to compare overtime

  • Case Studies­ intense examination over time of 1 person

 get more data

 Problems:  Does not represent group

  • Correlation Research­ used when a researcher wants to predict one variable from another­ predict what’s next o Does not introduce variable for ethical/logistical reasons
  • Correlation Coefficient­ degree of relationship between 2+ variables
    • Positive CC­ change in same direction
    • Negative CC­ change in opposite direction
    • Range in magnitude from zero to absolute 1
  • CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION
  • Experimental Research­ used to determine if there is a casual relationship between 2 variables o Enables causation by manipulating variable o Needs sample o Definitions:
    • Sample­ subset of population you test
    • Population­ everyone who could be involved in research
    • Representative sample­ reflects characteristic of population
    • Random sample­ each likely to be chosen for research
    • Convenience samples­ on hand
    • Independent variable­ manipulated by experimenter
    • Dependent variable­ shows effects of IV
    • Experimental groups­ exposed to IV
    • Control group­ not exposed to IV

 Compare results to this group to determine true effect

  • Extraneous/Confounding variables­ anything other than IV that causes changes in DV

 Ruins research if large enough

  • Experimenter bias­ accidentally signal participant as to how they are expected to perform
  • Use Double Blind Design­ don’t know which group
  • Ethnocentrism­ same stimulus may mean very different things in different cultures
  • Participant Bias/Social desirability response­ may lie to make themselves seem better
  • Participant Expectancy Effects­ try to figure out aim of study and give you answers you want to see

 Try to bury true aim of research to prevent

  • Biological Research o Started studying how brain works by examining people with brain lesions­ sustained damage
    • Mid 1800s­ study damaged areas to determine what that particular area of the brain does­rely on natural sources of damage
    • Technological advances have allowed us to study intact, fully functional human functions as well

Ethical Guidelines/Considerations

  • Informed consent forms­ why, what, risks, benefits
  • Voluntary participation­ can stop at any time
  • Use of deception­ in order to avoid participant expectancy; mislead participant as of purpose of research to get truth o May have outlived usefulness­ not common anymore o Problem­ consent not informed if misled; requires debriefing
  • Confidentiality­ more interested in group you belong to than to individual answers
  • Students as research participants­ have to have 1+ option or it is not voluntary anymore

Historical Perspectives in Psychology

  • Experimental Psychology and Structuralism­ physical structures o Wilhelm Wundt­ established the 1st psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany in
  1. 1879.

 Defined psychology as the study of structure of conscious experience­

Structuralism

 How we experience the world around us

 Break down into every detail

  • His student­ Edward Titchener brought Wundt’s ideas to US
  • Introspection­ participant exposed to different types of stimulus and reported sensations/feelings associated
    • EX­ Kitten picture
  • Functionalism­ function in behavior in enabling people/animals to adapt to environment, inclinations to behave in specific ways o Influenced by Darwin
    • People became impatient with introspection­felt it was too limiting o William James­ head of movement in US
    • Natural Selection­ environment “selects” those who possess some characteristic that contributes to survival
    • Survival of the fittest­ adaptive “survive” in sense of successfully passing on genes fit for that particular environment
  • Psychoanalytic­ Sigmund Freud believed that humans are motivated mainly by violent, sexual drives o Try to fit unacceptable drives into acceptable behavior o Problems with Freud:
    • Never treated a child but came up with child theory
    • Theories too involved with sex and violence
    • Sexist
  • Behaviorism­ big in US in 50s­60s o Important to distinguish between theoretical and methodological aspects
    • Theoretical­ environment is the primary determinant of thought and behavior

 How people react to your behaviors is what matters

  • Methodological­ subject matter of psychology show be restricted exclusively to environmental inputs and observable responses
  • Gestalt Psychology­ interested in the study of perception o Thought you can’t study perception by breaking it down into its structural parts­ had to look at experience as a whole
    • Lose meaning of whole if break down into tiny parts
    • Wertheimer­ we often experience things that are not part of our simple sensations
      • Human mind wants patterns and look for them when none exist
      • Brain tries to make sense of stimulus
      • EX­ Christmas lights, movies­ use still images to see movement o Phi Phenomenon­ apply patterns when none fit

Phineas Gage­ 1st patient from whom we learned something about the relation between personality and function of frontal lobes­ “decision maker”

  • Foreman of RR construction company in Vermont
  • Shattered large sections of rock with explosives
  • 13th, 1848­ tamping rod blown through skull o Before­ capable worker, nice person
    • After­ rude, profane, irritable­ fairly typical for frontal lobe damage
  • Seizures in 1860­ died a couple of months later

Neuroscience­ field that studies now biological processes relate to behavioral and mental processes

Nervous System

  • CNS­ includes brain and spinal cord­ > 90% of neurons in body
  • PNS­ nerves that connect brain and SC to other parts of body o Somatic NS­ transmits info about body movements and external environment­ voluntary movements
    • Autonomic NS­ transmits info to and from internal organs and glands­ involuntary actions
      • Sympathetic NS­ acts like accelerator­mobilizing body for action and output of E­“fight or flight”
      • Parasympathetic NS­ acts like brake­ slows body down, helping you calm and conserve E­ normal resting state
    • Neurons­ basic units of NS­ communicate info in brain and throughout body Glial Cells­ support and nourish neurons­ may be involved in communication

Parts of Neuron:

  • Soma­cell body­ contains nucleus, carry out functions of E synthesis, waste removal, and metabolic functions
  • Dendrites­ branchlike extensions of cell body that receive info from other cells
  • Axons­ long extension from soma that conveys info towards other neurons, muscles, and glands
  • Myelin sheath­ white fatty coating that insulates and speeds up transmission
  • Nodes of Ranvier­ unmyelinated areas/axons
  • Terminal Buttons­ swollen area that sends signals from neuron to adjacent cells
  • Synapses­ connections between neurons
  • Synaptic cleft­ space between 2 neurons­ do not actually touch

Communication between Neurons:

  • Presynaptic Neuron­ sends impulse
  • Postsynaptic Neuron­ receives impulse
  • Neurotransmitters­ chemicals produced and released by neurons that cause changes in other neurons
  • Receptors­ protein molecule in postsynaptic neuron

Brain Anatomy:

  • Cerebral Cortex­ outer surface of 2 cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior o Takes up most room in skull o ~80% of weight of skull o ~70% of neurons in CNS

o Most recently evolved part of NS and more highly developed in humans than in any other animal

  • Convolutions­ folds of cerebral cortex­ as unique as fingerprints
  • Central Sulcus­ separates 2 cortexes
  • Primary Somatosensory Cortex­ receives sensory messages from entire body
  • Primary Motor Cortex­ sends messages from the brain to various muscles and glands in body
  • Different lobes of cerebral hemisphere are specialized for different functions o Occipital lobe­ receives and processes visual information
    • Shapes, colors, directional movements o Temporal lobe­ complex visual task
    • Facial recognition
    • Receives and processes information from the ears
    • Contributes to balance and equilibrium
    • Regulates emotions and motivations
    • Ability to understand language o Parietal lobe­ receives sensory information from all over the body
    • Oversee spatial abilities o Frontal lobe­ “executive control system”­ remains most mysterious part of the brain
    • Receives and coordinates messages from other three lobes of cortex
    • Keeps track of previous and future movements of body o Lateral Prefrontal Cortex­ problem solving
    • See consequences of our actions
    • Directed behavior and emotionally mature
    • Twice the size in females than in males

Behavioral Genetics­ explores the impact of genetics and environmental factors on differences in behavioral, biological, psychological processes of groups

  • Determines how much a contribution each factor is
  • Diathesis Stress Model­ born with predisposition to certain disorder

Methods for Studying Behavioral Genetics

  • Twin Studies­ look for amount of agreement o Monozygotic­ identical twins from 1 egg o Dizygotic­ Fraternal twins from 2 eggs
    • “Twinned” environment­ same environmental influences
    • Concordance Rates­ agreement between twins on certain characteristics
      • Compare across MZ and DZ groups
      • Genetics are an important if identical twins have higher concordance rates
    • Adoption Studies­ focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by nonbiological parents o If traits/characteristics resemble biological parents­ genetic
      • If traits/characteristics resemble adoptive parents­ environmental effects
    • Family Studies­ if genes influence traits, close relatives should share trait more than distant relatives because close relatives have more genes in common o Hard to separate effects of genetics VS environmental effects because they share both o EX­ Schizophrenia
      • General population ~1­2%
      • Siblings are 8 times more likely to have
      • Offspring are 10 times more likely to have
      • Suggests inheritably of disorder

Health Psychology­ studies the relationship between psychological behavior and physical health and fitness

Stress­ refers to how the body responds to any # of physical or emotional stimuli (stressors)

  • May not be aware of response/changes
  • Increased HR, Respiratory rates, sweating, skin problems, BP, metabolism and changes in circulating fats
  • Types:
    • Eustress­ pleasant or curative stress
      • Exercise­good for you in the long run o Distress­ unpleasant or disease­producing stress
      • “Stress” when we talk about it
    • Sources of Stress:
      • Life changes­ adjustment can cause stress­small
        • We like to predict what will happen next
        • Social Readjustment Scale­ Handout

 Does not take into account different life circumstances  Degree of stress caused depends on how stressor is perceived

  • Chronic Stressors­ ongoing, continuous pressures when urge to fight or flight has been suppressed  Work, Money
    • Family, relationships, illness, care­giving o Hassles­ Minor, irritating incidents that occur everyday
    • Pile­up
    • Wal­Mart, Traffic… o Burnout­ physical, emotional, mental exhaustion from long­term involvement in emotionally demanding situations
    • Fatigue, loss of idealism/Energy, emotional numbness
    • Herbert Frendenberger­ studied volunteers in free­clinic movements with

Vietnam veterans

 Brought “burnout” to US

 Seen in those who dedicated most

  • Frustration­ unpleasant tension, anxiety and increased sympathetic activity resulting from blocked goal
    • Morris’s 5 sources of frustration in US life

Delays­ time pressured society

Lack of resources­ Money, material due to media

Losses­ relationships, loved ones­ feel helpless

Failure­ tend to take it personally

Discrimination­ ageism, racism, sexism, theism…

  • Conflicts­ having to choose between 2+ incomparable goals or impulses  3 Types:

Approach­Approach conflict­ person has to choose between

2 equally pleasant alternatives

  • Less stressful than others

Avoidance­Avoidance conflict­ results when neither choice is pleasurable but have to choose 1

Approach­Avoidance­ choice has positive and negative aspects

General Adaptation Syndrome

  • Stress is a psychobiological process, with both physiological and psychological components and consequences
  • Walter Cannon­ 1932­ 1st to describe fight/flight o Women seem to “tend and befriend”­ take care of others
  • Hans Selye­ body responds to stressful conditions with GAS if stress continues

Stage 1: Alarm reaction­ immediate reaction to stressor­ fight/flight

Stage 2: Stage of resistance/adaptation­ body adapts to continual stressors o Modify functions to cope with stress

Stage 3: Stage of exhaustion­ resistance gradually decreases or collapses quickly o Increased risk for heart attacks or strokes

Individual Differences:

  • Personality types­ one of the most researched areas
    • Type A­ impatient, hard­driving, ambitious, competitive, hostile
      • Related to Heart disease
      • First identified by 2 cardiologists o Type B­ more relaxed, easy­going, less easily angered
    • Optimism­ glass ½ full o Recover quicker from coronary bypass
    • Pessimism­ glass ½ empty
      • Do not take good physical care of themselves, do not cope well, depressed immune functions increases illnesses
      • 35 year Harvard Study­ more likely to be ill/dead by age 50
    • Hardiness­ Suzanne Kobase­ “people who tolerate stress exceptionally well seem to thrive on it” o Characteristics:
      • Open to change
      • Internally motivated­ especially work situations
      • Deeply committed to careers­ personal satisfaction
      • Meaningful activities­ give back to others
      • Challenge­ stressful events overcome by efforts
      • Control­ have a lot of control over their lives
    • Resilience­ ability to “bounce back” from stressors o Study­ 240 high risk kids in Hawaii, followed for 40 years
      • 1/3 were resilient­ overcame obstacles in past o Characteristics:
      • Increase in percent of stable marriages
      • Decreased proportions of unemployment and mental health difficulties
      • Affectionate and outgoing
      • Special interests and talents
      • Warm, caring relationships with at least one adult other than their parent­ Mentor

Post­Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)­ affects hundreds of thousands of people who have survived earthquakes, airplane crashes, terrorist bombings, inner­city violence, domestic abuse, rape, war, genocide, and other disasters both natural and man made.

  • Once called shell shock or battle fatigue syndrome
  • Misdiagnosed, Under­diagnosed
  • More common in women than in men
  • Symptoms­ usually appear within 3 months of trauma but may appear later o Intrusion­ memories of trauma reoccur unexpectedly

 Flashbacks

o Avoidance­ person often avoids close, emotional ties with family, colleagues, friends, reminders of event

  • Survivor’s guilt o Hyper arousal­ act as if constantly being threatened by trauma that caused illness
  • Trouble concentrating and sleeping
  • Tend to self medicate

Coping with Stress­ Lazarus has 2 major divisions

  • Problem focused coping­ taking steps to change source of stress directly o Better psychologically
  • Emotion­focused coping­ efforts to change one’s emotional response to stressor o Generally only offers short­term “relief”

Smoking

  • Effects:
    • Coronary heart disease o Cancers­ lung, mouth, throat… o Chronic bronchitis
    • Emphysema­ lungs do not inflate as well o Ulcers
    • Social embarrassment­ bad breath, stinky clothes…
  • Non­smoking laws may encourage people to keep smoking o Psychological Reactance­ do not like to be told what to do
  • Personal Fable­ different comparing perspectives o Unique and special because general rules and problems “do not happen to us” o Start smoking when we are young and want to impress others
  • Quickly become addicted o Addictiveness of nicotine is comparable to heroine & cocaine
  • Nicotine withdrawal symptoms o Cravings to smoke
    • Irritable, cranky o Insomnia
    • Fatigue
    • Inability to concentrate
    • Headaches
    • Cough, sore throat o Constipation, gas, stomach pains o Dry mouth
  • Coping with Symptoms o 5 D’s
    • Delay until urge passes­ usually within 3­5 minutes
    • Distract yourself
    • Drink water to fight off cravings­ flush out nicotine
    • Deep breaths to relax and feel air in lungs
    • Discuss your feelings with someone close to you o Exercise­ get a little everyday­ reminds you why you quit
  • Get more rest
  • Relaxation
  • Reward yourself at end of every single smoke­free day

Binge Drinking­ consuming 5+ drinks in a row for boys, 4+ for girls

  • Alcohol is a poison­pace yourself to deal with toxins

Sensation­ receiving, converting, transmitting information from outside world

  • Knowledge come from various sources

Perception­ selecting, organizing, interpreting raw sensory data

  • Information about useful mental representations of the world

Sensation:

  • The Basic Process­ o E stimulates receptor cell in sense organ
    • Receptor cell­ specialized nerve cell that responds to particular type of E
      • Light waves for vision
      • Vibrations for hearing o Receptor cell sends signal along sensory nerves to appropriate area of cerebral cortex o Sensory messages enter brain at different channels o Thalamus­ decides where information goes in the brain
    • Sensory Thresholds o Absolute threshold­ minimun intensity of physical E required to produce sensation
      • Determined by different stimuli with different intensities
      • Set at detectable 50% of time
      • Varies from person­person and movement­movement in same person  Remarkably low for each of our senses:

 Taste­ 1 g table salt in 500 L of water

 Smell­ 1 drop perfume diffused through 6 room apartment

 Touch­ can feel the wing of a bee fall on cheek from 1 cm away

 Hearing­ tick to watch 20 ft away in quite room

 Vision­ candle flame 30 miles away in clear, dark night

  • Sensory Adaptation­ senses adjust according to stimulus level received  Notice changes most
  • Difference threshold/Just noticeable Difference­ smallest change in stimulus that can be detected 50% of time
    • Varies according to strength and intensity of original stimulus
    • Tells us something about flexibility of sensory systems

Sight:

  • Retina­ lining of the eye that contains receptor cells that are sensitive to light o Rods­ night vision and perception of brightness o Cones­ color vision
    • Need fairly high levels of light to work o Fovea­ area of retina that is center of visual field
    • Contains more cones than rods
  • Visual Adaptation­ sensitivity of rods/cones changes according to how much light is available o Dark Adaptation­ rods/cones are more sensitive to light in response to low levels of illumination
    • Cones­ reach full sensitivity in about 10 minutes
    • Rods­ gain sensitivity up to about 30 minutes o Light Adaptation­ rods/cones become less sensitive to light in response to increased levels of illumination
    • Occurs quicker­ in about 1 minute for rods/cones

Hearing:

  • Sound­ psychological experience created by brain in response to changes in air pressure that are received by auditory system o Sound waves­ changes in pressure caused when molecules of air/fluid collide with one another and more apart again
    • Frequency­ number of cycles per second in a wave
      • Primary determinant of pitch o Pitch­ auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations­ high/low tones
    • Amplitude­ magnitude of wave
      • Primary determinant of loudness o Decibels­ measurement of loudness
    • Timbre­ mixture of sound waves
      • Helps identify the sounds we hear
    • Aging­ lose high and low pitches but can still hear loud noises
    • Hearing undergoes adaptation so it can function optimally under wide variety of conditions
    • Ear Anatomy:
      • Outer Ear­ gathers, delivers sounds to middle ear o Middle Ear­ amplifies and concentrates sounds o Inner Ear­ receptor cells send information to brain
    • Disorders­ injury, infections, cigarette smoking, explosions o Permanent damage may be caused by:
      • Brief exposure to more than 150 dB
      • Daily exposure to 85 dB o Relatively common­ ~28 million US are partially deaf
      • Auditory system is subtle and complicated
      • Problems accumulate as we age o 2 types of deafness
      • Conduction Deafness­ middle ear deafness
      • Nerve Deafness­ inner ear deafness associated with receptor cells

Smell­Olfaction

  • Most primitive and evocative o Associated with memory o Allows us to find food, mates…
  • Olfactory epithelium­ mucus membrane containing small receptors
  • Rarely perceive odors as neutral
  • Evolutionary bias­ helps us distinguish between safe/rotten foods
  • We can detect more than 10,000 different smells

Taste­ Gustation

  • Humans are omnivores
  • Flavor­ comes from combination of taste and smell 4 usual tastes:
    • Sweet o Sour o Salty o Bitter
  • 3 additional tastes o Astringent­ tannins­ tea/red wine

 Dry, dusty, gritty taste

  • Umami­ monosodium glutamate MSg
    • “delicious” o ?­ not named yet but attraction to fat
  • Displays adaptation o Cross­adaptation­ exposure to one taste can modify another taste
    • Artichokes may cause everything to taste sweeter
    • Drinking OJ after brushing your teeth

Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses

  • Kinesthetic Senses­ muscle movement, posture, strain on muscles and joints o Unconsciously processed
    • Information about speed/direction of movement
  • Vestibular Senses­ equilibrium and body position/orientation in space

Skin Senses:

  • Touch may be most comforting­ more emotional content o Holding babies is very important
  • Skin senses are remarkably sensitive o Skin displacement of as little as 0.00004 inch can result in sensation of pressure o Various parts of body differ greatly in sensitivity to pressure
  • Receptors on skin undergo sensory adaptation

Perception­ our senses bring us raw data about the environment that we have to interpret

  • Perceptual Organization o Gestalt psychologists­ set out to discover basic principles of perception

 Perception is more than the sum of its parts

 Stimulus

 Predictable

  • Figure­ entity that stands apart from background o Ground­ background against which a figure appears
    • Distinction pertains to all senses­not just sight
    • Aren’t enough clues to distinguish sometimes

 Animal camouflage­ Zebra EX

 M. C. Escher drawings

  • Perceptual Constancies o Perceptual Constancy­ tendency to perceive objects as relatively stable/not changing despite changing sensory info
    • Turnball and Mbuit of Zaire

 Always saw everything from within ~ 10 feet

 Did not understand when saw things father away

  • Size constancy­ perception of object as having same size regardless of distance from which ti is viewed

 Depends partly on experience

  • Shape constancy­ see an object as same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from
  • Color constancy­ perceive familiar objects as retaining color despite changes in sensory info­ illumination

 Does not work as well for unfamiliar objects

  • Perceiving Distance and Depth o Critically important if an organism is to more freely in env o More remarkable process than most people realize
    • Image of world is essentially flat­2D
    • Brain transforms information to 3D o Monocular Cues­visual cues that require use of 1 eye
    • Aerial perspective­ distant objects have hazy appearance and somewhat blurred outline
    • Texture gradient­ close object seems to have rough/detailed texture

 Loses texture with distance

 Shirt weave EX

  • Linear perspective­ 2 parallel lines that extend into distance appear to come together at some point on horizon

 Highway EX

  • Binocular Cues­ visual cues that require use of both eyes  Brain Cues:

Stereoscopic vision­ combination of 2 retinal images to give 3D experience by brain

  • Important in evolutionary history

Retinal disparity­ difference between images cast on 2 retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object

  • Better depth perception

 Muscular Control

Convergence­ muscles controlling eye movement as eyes turn inward to view nearby stimulus

  • Works with radius of ~ 3 yards
  • Locating Sounds o Monaural Cues­ requires use of 1 ear
    • Loud sounds are perceived closer than faint sounds o Binaural Cues­ involves use of both ears
    • Sounds reach one ear significantly ahead of other
    • Time difference between sound recognition in brain helps us judge location of source
  • Subliminal Perception and ESP o Idea of absolute threshold implies that certain events in outside world occur outside our conscious awareness
    • Several lab studies indicated that in a controlled lab setting, people can process and respond to info of which they are not consciously aware
    • Subliminal Movie ads­ no change
    • Priming­ certain words/thought activate faster reactions
      • Doctor EX
    • Scientific Studies­ hidden messages outside lab have no significant effect on behavior
    • Mind can play tricks
      • Motivational tapes for Self­Esteem and memory improvement

 Tapes were switched

 No impact on effect

  • Extrasensory Perception­ response to unknown event are not presented to any known sense o Clairvoyance­ awareness of unknown object/event

 Remote viewing EX o Telepathy­ knowledge of someone else’s thoughts/feelings

  • Precognition­ foreknowledge of future

Research is criticized for poor experimental design, failure to control for dishonesty, selective reporting of results, and inability to replace findings