{"id":3889,"date":"2018-07-22T17:40:38","date_gmt":"2018-07-22T21:40:38","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/?p=3889"},"modified":"2019-05-26T00:33:49","modified_gmt":"2019-05-26T04:33:49","slug":"introduction-to-psychology","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/introduction-to-psychology\/introduction-to-psychology\/","title":{"rendered":"Introduction to Psychology"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><strong>Psychology<\/strong>\u00ad the study of human mind and human behavior<\/p>\n<p>Assumptions of Science:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>There is order in the universe<\/li>\n<li><strong>Determinism<\/strong>\u00ad every event has physical, potentially measurable cause o Does not take into account free will o Things happen for reason<\/li>\n<li><strong>Skepticism<\/strong>\u00ad an attitude that doubts all claims not supported by solid research evidenceshow data<\/li>\n<li><strong>Accuracy<\/strong>\u00ad as error free as possible<\/li>\n<li><strong>Objectivity<\/strong>\u00ad free of bias AMAP o Questions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Interpretation<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Open\u00admindedness<\/strong>\u00ad Change<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Goals of Scientific Research<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Description<\/strong>\u00ad the citing of the observable characteristics of an event, object, or individual; as it exists, no manipulation, new\/rare to field\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Systematic<\/strong>\u00ad describe what is relevant<\/li>\n<li><strong>Precise<\/strong>\u00ad use of #s for measurement; concrete descriptions AMAP<\/li>\n<li><strong>Operational definitions<\/strong>\u00ad define behavior or qualities in terms of the procedures used to measure or produce them<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Ex\u00ad Drunk, use Blood Alcohol Content<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Prediction<\/strong>\u00ad What should happen next; Psychologists want to make predictions in form of hypotheses about changes in behavior, mental experiences, or physiological processes o <strong>Hypothesis<\/strong>\u00ad testable prediction about a relationship usually derived from a theory o <strong>Theory<\/strong>\u00ad set of statements that summarize and explain research findings from which research hypotheses can be derived<\/li>\n<li><strong>Control<\/strong>\u00ad manipulate factors that effect thought\/behavior o Experimental control\u00ad research\u00ad control as many factors as possible o Everyday control\u00ad application of research findings to control behavior<\/li>\n<li><strong>Explanation<\/strong>\u00ad discover of causes of overt behaviors, mental experiences, and physiological processes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Scientific Method<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Provide a rationale and review the relevant literature o Identify the problem of interest\u00ad area of study o Review the relevant research literature\u00ad several reasons\n<ul>\n<li>Operational differences\u00ad same concept questions<\/li>\n<li>Avoid needless replication<\/li>\n<li>Research into broader context<\/li>\n<li>Exposure to other theories<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Develop a Testable Hypothesis\u00ad testable prediction about the relationship between 2 or more events or characteristics<\/li>\n<li>Design the study and collect the data o Decide on the research procedure to use o Collect the data<\/li>\n<li>Analyze the data and accept\/reject the hypothesis o Apply statistics to the data\n<ul>\n<li>Descriptive statistics\u00ad summarize 1 group at a time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Mean, Variability<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Inferential Statistics\u00ad compare groups o Discuss the implications of the research findings in regard to the research hypothesis<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Publish, Replicate, and seek scientific review o Publish the findings o Replicate the study\n<ul>\n<li>Replicate the exact study with different participants\u00ad within reason to make sure there was no fluke<\/li>\n<li>Replicate study with systematic variation of relevant variables Build a Theory<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Types of Research<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Descriptive Research<\/strong>\u00ad researcher simply records what he\/she has systematically observed. o NO causation or prediction o Several methods used:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Naturalistic observation<\/strong>\u00ad participants are studies in their natural environment\u00ad don\u2019t know they are being observed<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Hawthorne Effect<\/strong>\u00ad change behavior because they know they are being observed<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Ethnographic research\u00ad researcher spends a lot of time with the people they are researching, usually living with them.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Especially useful when studying other cultures<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Archival Research\u00ad examines collections of letters, manuscripts, tape recordings, video recordings, etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Useful to compare overtime<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Case Studies<\/strong>\u00ad intense examination over time of 1 person<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa get more data<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Problems:\u00a0 Does not represent group<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Correlation Research<\/strong>\u00ad used when a researcher wants to predict one variable from another\u00ad predict what\u2019s next o Does not introduce variable for ethical\/logistical reasons<\/li>\n<li>Correlation Coefficient\u00ad degree of relationship between 2+ variables\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Positive CC\u00ad<\/strong> change in same direction<\/li>\n<li><strong>Negative CC<\/strong>\u00ad change in opposite direction<\/li>\n<li>Range in magnitude from zero to absolute 1<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>Experimental Research<\/strong>\u00ad used to determine if there is a casual relationship between 2 variables o Enables causation by manipulating variable o Needs sample o Definitions:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sample\u00ad<\/strong> subset of population you test<\/li>\n<li><strong>Population<\/strong>\u00ad everyone who could be involved in research<\/li>\n<li>Representative sample\u00ad reflects characteristic of population<\/li>\n<li><strong>Random sample<\/strong>\u00ad each likely to be chosen for research<\/li>\n<li><strong>Convenience samples<\/strong>\u00ad on hand<\/li>\n<li><strong>Independent variable<\/strong>\u00ad manipulated by experimenter<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dependent variable<\/strong>\u00ad shows effects of IV<\/li>\n<li><strong>Experimental groups<\/strong>\u00ad exposed to IV<\/li>\n<li><strong>Control group<\/strong>\u00ad not exposed to IV<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Compare results to this group to determine true effect<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Extraneous\/Confounding variables<\/strong>\u00ad anything other than IV that causes changes in DV<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Ruins research if large enough<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Experimenter bias<\/strong>\u00ad accidentally signal participant as to how they are expected to perform<\/li>\n<li>Use <strong>Double Blind Design<\/strong>\u00ad don\u2019t know which group<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ethnocentrism<\/strong>\u00ad same stimulus may mean very different things in different cultures<\/li>\n<li><strong>Participant Bias\/Social desirability response<\/strong>\u00ad may lie to make themselves seem better<\/li>\n<li><strong>Participant Expectancy Effects<\/strong>\u00ad try to figure out aim of study and give you answers you want to see<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Try to bury true aim of research to prevent<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Biological Research o Started studying how brain works by examining people with brain lesions\u00ad sustained damage\n<ul>\n<li>Mid 1800s\u00ad study damaged areas to determine what that particular area of the brain does\u00adrely on natural sources of damage<\/li>\n<li>Technological advances have allowed us to study intact, fully functional human functions as well<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Ethical Guidelines\/Considerations<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Informed consent<\/strong> forms\u00ad why, what, risks, benefits<\/li>\n<li><strong>Voluntary participation<\/strong>\u00ad can stop at any time<\/li>\n<li>Use of <strong>deception<\/strong>\u00ad in order to avoid participant expectancy; mislead participant as of purpose of research to get truth o May have outlived usefulness\u00ad not common anymore o Problem\u00ad consent not informed if misled; requires debriefing<\/li>\n<li><strong>Confidentiality\u00ad<\/strong> more interested in group you belong to than to individual answers<\/li>\n<li>Students as research participants\u00ad have to have 1+ option or it is not voluntary anymore<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Historical Perspectives in Psychology<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Experimental Psychology and Structuralism<\/strong>\u00ad physical structures o <strong>Wilhelm Wundt<\/strong>\u00ad established the 1<sup>st<\/sup> psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany in<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ol start=\"1879\">\n<li><strong>1879<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>\uf0a7 Defined psychology as the study of structure of conscious experience\u00ad<\/p>\n<p>Structuralism<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa How we experience the world around us<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Break down into every detail<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>His student\u00ad Edward <strong>Titchener<\/strong> brought Wundt\u2019s ideas to US<\/li>\n<li><strong>Introspection<\/strong>\u00ad participant exposed to different types of stimulus and reported sensations\/feelings associated\n<ul>\n<li>EX\u00ad Kitten picture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Functionalism<\/strong>\u00ad function in behavior in enabling people\/animals to adapt to environment, inclinations to behave in specific ways o Influenced by Darwin\n<ul>\n<li>People became impatient with introspection\u00adfelt it was too limiting o <strong>William James<\/strong>\u00ad head of movement in US<\/li>\n<li>Natural Selection\u00ad environment \u201cselects\u201d those who possess some characteristic that contributes to survival<\/li>\n<li>Survival of the fittest\u00ad adaptive \u201csurvive\u201d in sense of successfully passing on genes fit for that particular environment<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Psychoanalytic\u00ad<\/strong> Sigmund Freud believed that humans are motivated mainly by violent, sexual drives o Try to fit unacceptable drives into acceptable behavior o Problems with Freud:\n<ul>\n<li>Never treated a child but came up with child theory<\/li>\n<li>Theories too involved with sex and violence<\/li>\n<li>Sexist<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Behaviorism<\/strong>\u00ad big in US in 50s\u00ad60s o Important to distinguish between theoretical and methodological aspects\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Theoretica<\/strong>l\u00ad environment is the primary determinant of thought and behavior<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa How people react to your behaviors is what matters<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Methodological\u00ad<\/strong> subject matter of psychology show be restricted exclusively to environmental inputs and observable responses<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Gestalt Psychology\u00ad interested in the study of perception o Thought you can\u2019t study perception by breaking it down into its structural parts\u00ad had to look at experience as a whole\n<ul>\n<li>Lose meaning of whole if break down into tiny parts<\/li>\n<li>Wertheimer\u00ad we often experience things that are not part of our simple sensations\n<ul>\n<li>Human mind wants patterns and look for them when none exist<\/li>\n<li>Brain tries to make sense of stimulus<\/li>\n<li>EX\u00ad Christmas lights, movies\u00ad use still images to see movement o Phi Phenomenon\u00ad apply patterns when none fit<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Phineas Gage<\/strong>\u00ad 1<sup>st<\/sup> patient from whom we learned something about the relation between personality and function of frontal lobes\u00ad \u201cdecision maker\u201d<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Foreman of RR construction company in Vermont<\/li>\n<li>Shattered large sections of rock with explosives<\/li>\n<li>13<sup>th<\/sup>, 1848\u00ad tamping rod blown through skull o Before\u00ad capable worker, nice person\n<ul>\n<li>After\u00ad rude, profane, irritable\u00ad fairly typical for frontal lobe damage<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Seizures in 1860\u00ad died a couple of months later<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Neuroscience<\/strong>\u00ad field that studies now biological processes relate to behavioral and mental processes<\/p>\n<p>Nervous System<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>CNS<\/strong>\u00ad includes brain and spinal cord\u00ad &gt; 90% of neurons in body<\/li>\n<li><strong>PNS<\/strong>\u00ad nerves that connect brain and SC to other parts of body o <strong>Somatic NS\u00ad<\/strong> transmits info about body movements and external environment\u00ad voluntary movements\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Autonomic NS<\/strong>\u00ad transmits info to and from internal organs and glands\u00ad involuntary actions\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sympathetic NS<\/strong>\u00ad acts like accelerator\u00admobilizing body for action and output of E\u00ad\u201cfight or flight\u201d<\/li>\n<li><strong>Parasympathetic NS<\/strong>\u00ad acts like brake\u00ad slows body down, helping you calm and conserve E\u00ad normal resting state<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Neuron<\/strong>s\u00ad basic units of NS\u00ad communicate info in brain and throughout body <strong>Glial Cells<\/strong>\u00ad support and nourish neurons\u00ad may be involved in communication<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Parts of Neuron:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Soma<\/strong>\u00adcell body\u00ad contains nucleus, carry out functions of E synthesis, waste removal, and metabolic functions<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dendrites<\/strong>\u00ad branchlike extensions of cell body that receive info from other cells<\/li>\n<li><strong>Axons<\/strong>\u00ad long extension from soma that conveys info towards other neurons, muscles, and glands<\/li>\n<li><strong>Myelin<\/strong> <strong>sheath<\/strong>\u00ad white fatty coating that insulates and speeds up transmission<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nodes of Ranvier<\/strong>\u00ad unmyelinated areas\/axons<\/li>\n<li><strong>Terminal Buttons<\/strong>\u00ad swollen area that sends signals from neuron to adjacent cells<\/li>\n<li><strong>Synapses<\/strong>\u00ad connections between neurons<\/li>\n<li><strong>Synaptic cleft\u00ad<\/strong> space between 2 neurons\u00ad do not actually touch<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Communication between Neurons:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Presynaptic Neuron<\/strong>\u00ad sends impulse<\/li>\n<li><strong>Postsynaptic Neuron<\/strong>\u00ad receives impulse<\/li>\n<li><strong>Neurotransmitters<\/strong>\u00ad chemicals produced and released by neurons that cause changes in other neurons<\/li>\n<li><strong>Receptors\u00ad<\/strong> protein molecule in postsynaptic neuron<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Brain Anatomy:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Cerebral Cortex<\/strong>\u00ad outer surface of 2 cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior o Takes up most room in skull o ~80% of weight of skull o ~70% of neurons in CNS<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Most recently evolved part of NS and more highly developed in humans than in any other animal<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Convolution<\/strong>s\u00ad folds of cerebral cortex\u00ad as unique as fingerprints<\/li>\n<li><strong>Central Sulcus<\/strong>\u00ad separates 2 cortexes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Primary Somatosensory Cortex<\/strong>\u00ad receives sensory messages from entire body<\/li>\n<li><strong>Primary Motor Cortex<\/strong>\u00ad sends messages from the brain to various muscles and glands in body<\/li>\n<li>Different lobes of cerebral hemisphere are specialized for different functions o <strong>Occipital lobe<\/strong>\u00ad receives and processes visual information\n<ul>\n<li>Shapes, colors, directional movements o <strong>Temporal lobe<\/strong>\u00ad complex visual task<\/li>\n<li>Facial recognition<\/li>\n<li>Receives and processes information from the ears<\/li>\n<li>Contributes to balance and equilibrium<\/li>\n<li>Regulates emotions and motivations<\/li>\n<li>Ability to understand language o <strong>Parietal lobe<\/strong>\u00ad receives sensory information from all over the body<\/li>\n<li>Oversee spatial abilities o <strong>Frontal lobe<\/strong>\u00ad \u201cexecutive control system\u201d\u00ad remains most mysterious part of the brain<\/li>\n<li>Receives and coordinates messages from other three lobes of cortex<\/li>\n<li>Keeps track of previous and future movements of body o <strong>Lateral Prefrontal Cortex<\/strong>\u00ad problem solving<\/li>\n<li>See consequences of our actions<\/li>\n<li>Directed behavior and emotionally mature<\/li>\n<li>Twice the size in females than in males<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Behavioral Genetics<\/strong>\u00ad explores the impact of genetics and environmental factors on differences in behavioral, biological, psychological processes of groups<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Determines how much a contribution each factor is<\/li>\n<li>Diathesis Stress Model\u00ad born with predisposition to certain disorder<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Methods for Studying Behavioral Genetics<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Twin Studies<\/strong>\u00ad look for amount of agreement o Monozygotic\u00ad identical twins from 1 egg o Dizygotic\u00ad Fraternal twins from 2 eggs\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cTwinned\u201d environment\u00ad same environmental influences<\/li>\n<li>Concordance Rates\u00ad agreement between twins on certain characteristics\n<ul>\n<li>Compare across MZ and DZ groups<\/li>\n<li>Genetics are an important if identical twins have higher concordance rates<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Adoption Studies<\/strong>\u00ad focus on children who were adopted at birth and brought up by nonbiological parents o If traits\/characteristics resemble biological parents\u00ad genetic\n<ul>\n<li>If traits\/characteristics resemble adoptive parents\u00ad environmental effects<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Family Studies<\/strong>\u00ad if genes influence traits, close relatives should share trait more than distant relatives because close relatives have more genes in common o Hard to separate effects of genetics VS environmental effects because they share both o EX\u00ad Schizophrenia\n<ul>\n<li>General population ~1\u00ad2%<\/li>\n<li>Siblings are 8 times more likely to have<\/li>\n<li>Offspring are 10 times more likely to have<\/li>\n<li>Suggests inheritably of disorder<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Health Psychology<\/strong>\u00ad studies the relationship between psychological behavior and physical health and fitness<\/p>\n<p><strong>Stress<\/strong>\u00ad refers to how the body responds to any # of physical or emotional stimuli (stressors)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>May not be aware of response\/changes<\/li>\n<li>Increased HR, Respiratory rates, sweating, skin problems, BP, metabolism and changes in circulating fats<\/li>\n<li>Types:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Eustress\u00ad<\/strong> pleasant or curative stress\n<ul>\n<li>Exercise\u00adgood for you in the long run o <strong>Distress<\/strong>\u00ad unpleasant or disease\u00adproducing stress<\/li>\n<li>\u201cStress\u201d when we talk about it<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Sources of Stress:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Life changes<\/strong>\u00ad adjustment can cause stress\u00adsmall\n<ul>\n<li>We like to predict what will happen next<\/li>\n<li>Social Readjustment Scale\u00ad Handout<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Does not take into account different life circumstances \uf0fa Degree of stress caused depends on how stressor is perceived<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Chronic Stressors<\/strong>\u00ad ongoing, continuous pressures when urge to fight or flight has been suppressed \uf0a7 Work, Money\n<ul>\n<li>Family, relationships, illness, care\u00adgiving o <strong>Hassles<\/strong>\u00ad Minor, irritating incidents that occur everyday<\/li>\n<li>Pile\u00adup<\/li>\n<li>Wal\u00adMart, Traffic\u2026 o <strong>Burnout<\/strong>\u00ad physical, emotional, mental exhaustion from long\u00adterm involvement in emotionally demanding situations<\/li>\n<li>Fatigue, loss of idealism\/Energy, emotional numbness<\/li>\n<li>Herbert Frendenberger\u00ad studied volunteers in free\u00adclinic movements with<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Vietnam veterans<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Brought \u201cburnout\u201d to US<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Seen in those who dedicated most<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Frustration<\/strong>\u00ad unpleasant tension, anxiety and increased sympathetic activity resulting from blocked goal\n<ul>\n<li>Morris\u2019s 5 sources of frustration in US life<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Delays\u00ad<\/strong> time pressured society<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Lack of resources<\/strong>\u00ad Money, material due to media<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Losses<\/strong>\u00ad relationships, loved ones\u00ad feel helpless<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Failure\u00ad<\/strong> tend to take it personally<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Discrimination<\/strong>\u00ad ageism, racism, sexism, theism\u2026<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Conflicts<\/strong>\u00ad having to choose between 2+ incomparable goals or impulses \uf0a7 3 Types:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Approach\u00adApproach conflict<\/strong>\u00ad person has to choose between<\/p>\n<p>2 equally pleasant alternatives<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Less stressful than others<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Avoidance\u00adAvoidance conflict<\/strong>\u00ad results when neither choice is pleasurable but have to choose 1<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Approach\u00adAvoidance<\/strong>\u00ad choice has positive and negative aspects<\/p>\n<p>General Adaptation Syndrome<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Stress is a psychobiological process, with both physiological and psychological components and consequences<\/li>\n<li><strong>Walter Cannon<\/strong>\u00ad 1932\u00ad 1<sup>st<\/sup> to describe fight\/flight o Women seem to \u201ctend and befriend\u201d\u00ad take care of others<\/li>\n<li><strong>Hans Selye\u00ad<\/strong> body responds to stressful conditions with GAS if stress continues<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Stage 1: Alarm reaction<\/strong>\u00ad immediate reaction to stressor\u00ad fight\/flight<\/p>\n<p><strong>Stage 2: Stage of resistance\/adaptation<\/strong>\u00ad body adapts to continual stressors o Modify functions to cope with stress<\/p>\n<p><strong>Stage 3: Stage of exhaustion<\/strong>\u00ad resistance gradually decreases or collapses quickly o Increased risk for heart attacks or strokes<\/p>\n<p>Individual Differences:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Personality types<\/strong>\u00ad one of the most researched areas\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Type A<\/strong>\u00ad impatient, hard\u00addriving, ambitious, competitive, hostile\n<ul>\n<li>Related to Heart disease<\/li>\n<li>First identified by 2 cardiologists o <strong>Type B\u00ad<\/strong> more relaxed, easy\u00adgoing, less easily angered<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Optimism<\/strong>\u00ad glass \u00bd full o Recover quicker from coronary bypass<\/li>\n<li><strong>Pessimism<\/strong>\u00ad glass \u00bd empty\n<ul>\n<li>Do not take good physical care of themselves, do not cope well, depressed immune functions increases illnesses<\/li>\n<li>35 year Harvard Study\u00ad more likely to be ill\/dead by age 50<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Hardiness<\/strong>\u00ad Suzanne Kobase\u00ad \u201cpeople who tolerate stress exceptionally well seem to thrive on it\u201d o Characteristics:\n<ul>\n<li>Open to change<\/li>\n<li>Internally motivated\u00ad especially work situations<\/li>\n<li>Deeply committed to careers\u00ad personal satisfaction<\/li>\n<li>Meaningful activities\u00ad give back to others<\/li>\n<li>Challenge\u00ad stressful events overcome by efforts<\/li>\n<li>Control\u00ad have a lot of control over their lives<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Resilience\u00ad<\/strong> ability to \u201cbounce back\u201d from stressors o Study\u00ad 240 high risk kids in Hawaii, followed for 40 years\n<ul>\n<li>1\/3 were resilient\u00ad overcame obstacles in past o Characteristics:<\/li>\n<li>Increase in percent of stable marriages<\/li>\n<li>Decreased proportions of unemployment and mental health difficulties<\/li>\n<li>Affectionate and outgoing<\/li>\n<li>Special interests and talents<\/li>\n<li>Warm, caring relationships with at least one adult other than their parent\u00ad Mentor<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Post\u00adTraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD<\/strong>)\u00ad affects hundreds of thousands of people who have survived earthquakes, airplane crashes, terrorist bombings, inner\u00adcity violence, domestic abuse, rape, war, genocide, and other disasters both natural and man made.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Once called shell shock or battle fatigue syndrome<\/li>\n<li>Misdiagnosed, Under\u00addiagnosed<\/li>\n<li>More common in women than in men<\/li>\n<li>Symptoms\u00ad usually appear within 3 months of trauma but may appear later o <strong>Intrusion<\/strong>\u00ad memories of trauma reoccur unexpectedly<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Flashbacks<\/p>\n<p>o <strong>Avoidance\u00ad<\/strong> person often avoids close, emotional ties with family, colleagues, friends, reminders of event<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Survivor\u2019s guilt o <strong>Hyper arousal<\/strong>\u00ad act as if constantly being threatened by trauma that caused illness<\/li>\n<li>Trouble concentrating and sleeping<\/li>\n<li>Tend to self medicate<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Coping with Stress\u00ad Lazarus has 2 major divisions<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Problem focused coping<\/strong>\u00ad taking steps to change source of stress directly o Better psychologically<\/li>\n<li><strong>Emotion\u00adfocused coping<\/strong>\u00ad efforts to change one\u2019s emotional response to stressor o Generally only offers short\u00adterm \u201crelief\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Smoking<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Effects:\n<ul>\n<li>Coronary heart disease o Cancers\u00ad lung, mouth, throat\u2026 o Chronic bronchitis<\/li>\n<li>Emphysema\u00ad lungs do not inflate as well o Ulcers<\/li>\n<li>Social embarrassment\u00ad bad breath, stinky clothes\u2026<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Non\u00adsmoking laws may encourage people to keep smoking o Psychological Reactance\u00ad do not like to be told what to do<\/li>\n<li><strong>Personal Fable<\/strong>\u00ad different comparing perspectives o Unique and special because general rules and problems \u201cdo not happen to us\u201d o Start smoking when we are young and want to impress others<\/li>\n<li>Quickly become addicted o Addictiveness of nicotine is comparable to heroine &amp; cocaine<\/li>\n<li>Nicotine withdrawal symptoms o Cravings to smoke\n<ul>\n<li>Irritable, cranky o Insomnia<\/li>\n<li>Fatigue<\/li>\n<li>Inability to concentrate<\/li>\n<li>Headaches<\/li>\n<li>Cough, sore throat o Constipation, gas, stomach pains o Dry mouth<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Coping with Symptoms o 5 D\u2019s\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Delay<\/strong> until urge passes\u00ad usually within 3\u00ad5 minutes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Distract<\/strong> yourself<\/li>\n<li><strong>Drink water<\/strong> to fight off cravings\u00ad flush out nicotine<\/li>\n<li><strong>Deep breaths<\/strong> to relax and feel air in lungs<\/li>\n<li><strong>Discuss your feelings<\/strong> with someone close to you o Exercise\u00ad get a little everyday\u00ad reminds you why you quit<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Get more rest<\/li>\n<li>Relaxation<\/li>\n<li>Reward yourself at end of every single smoke\u00adfree day<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Binge Drinking<\/strong>\u00ad consuming 5+ drinks in a row for boys, 4+ for girls<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Alcohol is a poison\u00adpace yourself to deal with toxins<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Sensation\u00ad<\/strong> receiving, converting, transmitting information from outside world<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Knowledge come from various sources<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Perception<\/strong>\u00ad selecting, organizing, interpreting raw sensory data<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Information about useful mental representations of the world<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sensation:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The Basic Process\u00ad o E stimulates receptor cell in sense organ\n<ul>\n<li>Receptor cell\u00ad specialized nerve cell that responds to particular type of E\n<ul>\n<li>Light waves for vision<\/li>\n<li>Vibrations for hearing o Receptor cell sends signal along sensory nerves to appropriate area of cerebral cortex o Sensory messages enter brain at different channels o Thalamus\u00ad decides where information goes in the brain<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Sensory Thresholds o <strong>Absolute threshold<\/strong>\u00ad minimun intensity of physical E required to produce sensation\n<ul>\n<li>Determined by different stimuli with different intensities<\/li>\n<li>Set at detectable 50% of time<\/li>\n<li>Varies from person\u00adperson and movement\u00admovement in same person \uf0a7 Remarkably low for each of our senses:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Taste\u00ad 1 g table salt in 500 L of water<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Smell\u00ad 1 drop perfume diffused through 6 room apartment<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Touch\u00ad can feel the wing of a bee fall on cheek from 1 cm away<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Hearing\u00ad tick to watch 20 ft away in quite room<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Vision\u00ad candle flame 30 miles away in clear, dark night<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sensory Adaptation<\/strong>\u00ad senses adjust according to stimulus level received \uf0a7 Notice changes most<\/li>\n<li><strong>Difference threshold\/Just noticeable Difference<\/strong>\u00ad smallest change in stimulus that can be detected 50% of time\n<ul>\n<li>Varies according to strength and intensity of original stimulus<\/li>\n<li>Tells us something about flexibility of sensory systems<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sight:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Retina\u00ad<\/strong> lining of the eye that contains receptor cells that are sensitive to light o <strong>Rods\u00ad<\/strong> night vision and perception of brightness o <strong>Cones<\/strong>\u00ad color vision\n<ul>\n<li>Need fairly high levels of light to work o <strong>Fovea\u00ad<\/strong> area of retina that is center of visual field<\/li>\n<li>Contains more cones than rods<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Visual Adaptation<\/strong>\u00ad sensitivity of rods\/cones changes according to how much light is available o <strong>Dark Adaptation<\/strong>\u00ad rods\/cones are more sensitive to light in response to low levels of illumination\n<ul>\n<li>Cones\u00ad reach full sensitivity in about 10 minutes<\/li>\n<li>Rods\u00ad gain sensitivity up to about 30 minutes o <strong>Light Adaptation<\/strong>\u00ad rods\/cones become less sensitive to light in response to increased levels of illumination<\/li>\n<li>Occurs quicker\u00ad in about 1 minute for rods\/cones<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Hearing:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sound<\/strong>\u00ad psychological experience created by brain in response to changes in air pressure that are received by auditory system o <strong>Sound waves<\/strong>\u00ad changes in pressure caused when molecules of air\/fluid collide with one another and more apart again\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Frequency<\/strong>\u00ad number of cycles per second in a wave\n<ul>\n<li>Primary determinant of pitch o <strong>Pitch\u00ad<\/strong> auditory experience corresponding primarily to frequency of sound vibrations\u00ad high\/low tones<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Amplitude<\/strong>\u00ad magnitude of wave\n<ul>\n<li>Primary determinant of loudness o <strong>Decibels<\/strong>\u00ad measurement of loudness<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Timbre<\/strong>\u00ad mixture of sound waves\n<ul>\n<li>Helps identify the sounds we hear<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Aging\u00ad<\/strong> lose high and low pitches but can still hear loud noises<\/li>\n<li>Hearing undergoes adaptation so it can function optimally under wide variety of conditions<\/li>\n<li>Ear Anatomy:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Outer Ear<\/strong>\u00ad gathers, delivers sounds to middle ear o <strong>Middle Ear<\/strong>\u00ad amplifies and concentrates sounds o <strong>Inner Ear<\/strong>\u00ad receptor cells send information to brain<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Disorders\u00ad injury, infections, cigarette smoking, explosions o Permanent damage may be caused by:\n<ul>\n<li>Brief exposure to more than 150 dB<\/li>\n<li>Daily exposure to 85 dB o Relatively common\u00ad ~28 million US are partially deaf<\/li>\n<li>Auditory system is subtle and complicated<\/li>\n<li>Problems accumulate as we age o 2 types of deafness<\/li>\n<li><strong>Conduction Deafness<\/strong>\u00ad middle ear deafness<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nerve Deafness<\/strong>\u00ad inner ear deafness associated with receptor cells<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Smell\u00adOlfaction<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Most primitive and evocative o Associated with memory o Allows us to find food, mates\u2026<\/li>\n<li><strong>Olfactory epithelium<\/strong>\u00ad mucus membrane containing small receptors<\/li>\n<li>Rarely perceive odors as neutral<\/li>\n<li>Evolutionary bias\u00ad helps us distinguish between safe\/rotten foods<\/li>\n<li>We can detect more than 10,000 different smells<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Taste\u00ad Gustation<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Humans are omnivores<\/li>\n<li><strong>Flavor<\/strong>\u00ad comes from combination of taste and smell 4 usual tastes:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Sweet <\/strong>o <strong>Sour <\/strong>o <strong>Salty <\/strong>o <strong>Bitter<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>3 additional tastes o <strong>Astringent<\/strong>\u00ad tannins\u00ad tea\/red wine<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Dry, dusty, gritty taste<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Umami<\/strong>\u00ad monosodium glutamate MSg\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cdelicious\u201d o ?\u00ad not named yet but attraction to fat<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Displays adaptation o <strong>Cross\u00adadaptation<\/strong>\u00ad exposure to one taste can modify another taste\n<ul>\n<li>Artichokes may cause everything to taste sweeter<\/li>\n<li>Drinking OJ after brushing your teeth<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Kinesthetic and Vestibular Senses<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Kinesthetic Senses<\/strong>\u00ad muscle movement, posture, strain on muscles and joints o Unconsciously processed\n<ul>\n<li>Information about speed\/direction of movement<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Vestibular Senses<\/strong>\u00ad equilibrium and body position\/orientation in space<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Skin Senses:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Touch may be most comforting\u00ad more emotional content o Holding babies is very important<\/li>\n<li>Skin senses are remarkably sensitive o Skin displacement of as little as 0.00004 inch can result in sensation of pressure o Various parts of body differ greatly in sensitivity to pressure<\/li>\n<li>Receptors on skin undergo sensory adaptation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Perception<\/strong>\u00ad our senses bring us raw data about the environment that we have to interpret<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Perceptual Organization o <strong>Gestalt psychologists<\/strong>\u00ad set out to discover basic principles of perception<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Perception is more than the sum of its parts<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Stimulus<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Predictable<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Figure\u00ad<\/strong> entity that stands apart from background o <strong>Ground<\/strong>\u00ad background against which a figure appears\n<ul>\n<li>Distinction pertains to all senses\u00adnot just sight<\/li>\n<li>Aren\u2019t enough clues to distinguish sometimes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Animal camouflage\u00ad Zebra EX<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa M. C. Escher drawings<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Perceptual Constancies o <strong>Perceptual Constancy<\/strong>\u00ad tendency to perceive objects as relatively stable\/not changing despite changing sensory info\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Turnball<\/strong> and Mbuit of Zaire<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Always saw everything from within ~ 10 feet<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Did not understand when saw things father away<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Size constancy<\/strong>\u00ad perception of object as having same size regardless of distance from which ti is viewed<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Depends partly on experience<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Shape constancy<\/strong>\u00ad see an object as same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from<\/li>\n<li><strong>Color constancy<\/strong>\u00ad perceive familiar objects as retaining color despite changes in sensory info\u00ad illumination<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Does not work as well for unfamiliar objects<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Perceiving Distance and Depth o Critically important if an organism is to more freely in env o More remarkable process than most people realize\n<ul>\n<li>Image of world is essentially flat\u00ad2D<\/li>\n<li>Brain transforms information to 3D o <strong>Monocular Cues\u00ad<\/strong>visual cues that require use of 1 eye<\/li>\n<li><strong>Aerial perspective<\/strong>\u00ad distant objects have hazy appearance and somewhat blurred outline<\/li>\n<li><strong>Texture gradient<\/strong>\u00ad close object seems to have rough\/detailed texture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Loses texture with distance<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa Shirt weave EX<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Linear perspective<\/strong>\u00ad 2 parallel lines that extend into distance appear to come together at some point on horizon<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Highway EX<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Binocular Cues<\/strong>\u00ad visual cues that require use of both eyes \uf0a7 Brain Cues:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Stereoscopic vision<\/strong>\u00ad combination of 2 retinal images to give 3D experience by brain<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Important in evolutionary history<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Retinal disparity<\/strong>\u00ad difference between images cast on 2 retinas when both eyes are focused on the same object<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Better depth perception<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Muscular Control<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa <strong>Convergenc<\/strong>e\u00ad muscles controlling eye movement as eyes turn inward to view nearby stimulus<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Works with radius of ~ 3 yards<\/li>\n<li>Locating Sounds o <strong>Monaural Cues<\/strong>\u00ad requires use of 1 ear\n<ul>\n<li>Loud sounds are perceived closer than faint sounds o <strong>Binaural Cues<\/strong>\u00ad involves use of both ears<\/li>\n<li>Sounds reach one ear significantly ahead of other<\/li>\n<li>Time difference between sound recognition in brain helps us judge location of source<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Subliminal Perception and ESP o Idea of absolute threshold implies that certain events in outside world occur outside our conscious awareness\n<ul>\n<li>Several lab studies indicated that in a controlled lab setting, people can process and respond to info of which they are not consciously aware<\/li>\n<li>Subliminal Movie ads\u00ad no change<\/li>\n<li><strong>Priming<\/strong>\u00ad certain words\/thought activate faster reactions\n<ul>\n<li>Doctor EX<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Scientific Studies<\/strong>\u00ad hidden messages outside lab have no significant effect on behavior<\/li>\n<li>Mind can play tricks\n<ul>\n<li>Motivational tapes for Self\u00adEsteem and memory improvement<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0fa Tapes were switched<\/p>\n<p>\uf0fa No impact on effect<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Extrasensory Perception<\/strong>\u00ad response to unknown event are not presented to any known sense o <strong>Clairvoyance\u00ad<\/strong> awareness of unknown object\/event<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Remote viewing EX o <strong>Telepathy\u00ad<\/strong> knowledge of someone else\u2019s thoughts\/feelings<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Precognition<\/strong>\u00ad foreknowledge of future<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Research is criticized for poor experimental design, failure to control for dishonesty, selective reporting of results, and inability to replace findings<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Psychology\u00ad the study of human mind and human behavior Assumptions of Science: There is order in the universe Determinism\u00ad every event has physical, potentially measurable cause o Does not&hellip; <a class=\"continue\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/introduction-to-psychology\/introduction-to-psychology\/\">Continue Reading<span> Introduction to Psychology<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[99],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3889"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=3889"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3889\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4919,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/3889\/revisions\/4919"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3889"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=3889"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=3889"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}