{"id":4181,"date":"2018-09-18T17:07:40","date_gmt":"2018-09-18T21:07:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/?p=4181"},"modified":"2019-05-26T00:25:02","modified_gmt":"2019-05-26T04:25:02","slug":"current-paradigms-in-psychopathology","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/abnormal-psychology\/current-paradigms-in-psychopathology\/","title":{"rendered":"Current Paradigms in Psychopathology"},"content":{"rendered":"<ul>\n<li><strong>Paradigm<\/strong> = a conceptual framework or approach within which a scientist works \u2013 that is, a set of basic assumptions, a general perspective, that defines how to conceptualize and study a subject<\/li>\n<li>Goal: Study abnormal behaviour scientifically *try to maintain objectivity (subjective factors always interfere)<\/li>\n<li>How to gather and interpret relevant data<\/li>\n<li>How to think about a particular subject<\/li>\n<li>Specifies what problems scientists will investigate and how they will do so<\/li>\n<li>3 main paradigms of psychology: genetic, neuroscience, and cognitive behavioural o Additional: diathesis-stress <strong>The Genetic Paradigm<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Almost all behaviour is heritable to some degree and despite this, genes do not operate in isolation from the environment<\/li>\n<li>\u201cNature via nurture\u201d<\/li>\n<li><strong>Genes<\/strong> = carriers of genetic information passed from parents to children o We have between 20000-25000 genes *impacted by environmental influences (stress, relationships, culture)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Gene expression<\/strong> = process by which some proteins switch, or turn on and off other genes<\/li>\n<li>Psychopathology is <strong>polygenic<\/strong> = several genes, operating at different times during the course of development, turning themselves on and off as they interact with a person\u2019s environment, is the essence of genetic vulnerability<\/li>\n<li>Relationship between genes and environment is bidirectional<\/li>\n<li>We don\u2019t inherit psychological disorders from our genes alone<\/li>\n<li>We develop them through the interaction of our genes with the environment<\/li>\n<li><strong>Heritability<\/strong> = the extent to which variability in a particular behaviour (or disorder) in a population can be accounted for by genetic factors o Heritability estimates range from 0.0 to 1.0: higher number = greater heritability o Heritability is relevant only for a large population of people, not a particular individual\n<ul>\n<li>g. heritability of ADHD is .70 does not mean 70% of Jane\u2019s ADHD is due to her genes<\/li>\n<li>Means in a population the variation in ADHD is understood as being attributed to 70% genetic factors and 30% environmental factors<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Shared environment factors<\/strong> = those things that members of a family have in common o g. family income, child-rearing practices<\/li>\n<li><strong>Non-shared environment<\/strong> \u201cunique environment\u201d factors = those things believed to be distinct among members of a family o g. relationships, specific events<\/li>\n<li>Unique\/non-shared experiences have much more to do with the development of psychological disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Behaviour Genetics<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Behaviour genetics<\/strong> = the study of the degree to which genes and environmental factors influence behaviour<\/li>\n<li><strong>Genotype<\/strong> = total genetic makeup of an individual, consisting of inherited genes *unobservable o Genes switch on and off<\/li>\n<li><strong>Phenotype<\/strong> = totality of observable behavioural characteristics o Changes overtime and is the product of an interaction between the genotype and the environment Molecular Genetics<\/li>\n<li><strong>Molecular <\/strong><strong>genetics<\/strong> = seeks to identify particular genes and their functions<\/li>\n<li>Human being has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each made up of thousands of genes that contain DNA \uf0b7 <strong>Alleles<\/strong> = different forms of the same gene<\/li>\n<li><strong>Polymorphism<\/strong> = a difference in DNA sequence on a gene that has occurred in a population<\/li>\n<li>DNA in genes is transcribed into RNA, sometimes translated into amino acids (to make proteins)<\/li>\n<li>Promoter DNA is recognized by proteins called <strong>transcription factors<\/strong><\/li>\n<li>Focus on difference between people in the sequence of their genes and in the structure of their genes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Single nucleotide polymorphisms <\/strong>(<strong>SNPs<\/strong>) = differences between people in a single nucleotide (A, T, C, G) in the DNA sequence of a particular gene<\/li>\n<li><strong>Copy number variations<\/strong> (<strong>CNVs<\/strong>) = differences between people in gene structure o Can be present in a single gene or multiple genes\n<ul>\n<li>Abnormal copy of one or more sections of DNA within the gene(s) o Abnormal copies are additions\/deletions<\/li>\n<li>Found in 5% of human genome (inherited or spontaneous mutation)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Knockout study<\/strong> = specific gene is taken out of DNA in an animal to observe effect on behaviour<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Gene-Environment Interactions<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Gene-environment interaction<\/strong> = a given person\u2019s sensitivity to an environmental event is influenced by genes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Serotonin transporter gene<\/strong> = gene with a polymorphism such that people have two short alleles, some have two long alleles and some have one short, one long o Combination of short-short and short-long + child maltreatment = more likely to be depressed<\/li>\n<li><strong>Epigenetics<\/strong> = study of how the environment can alter gene expression (\u201cabove\u201d\/\u201doutside\u201d the gene) o Marks on DNA control gene expression, the environment can influence them\n<ul>\n<li>Genes predispose individuals to seek out situations that increase the likelihood of developing a disorder<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Evaluating the Genetic Paradigm<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Direct replication<\/strong> = using the same measures and definitions of concepts<\/li>\n<li><strong>Indirect replication<\/strong> = including broader measures of related constructs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>The Neuroscience Paradigm<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Neuroscience paradigm<\/strong> = examines the contribution of brain structure &amp; function to psychopathology o Mental disorders are linked to aberrant processes in the brain<\/li>\n<li>1) Neurons and neurotransmitters, 2) Brain structure and function, 3) Neuroendocrine system<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Neurons and Neurotransmitters<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Neuron<\/strong> = cell making up the nervous system, composed of (1) cell body, (2) several dendrites, (3) one or more axon, and (4) terminal buttons on the end branches of the axon<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nerve impulse<\/strong> = dendrites or cell body stimulated, travels down axon to terminal<\/li>\n<li><strong>Synapse<\/strong> = small gap between the terming ending of the sending axon and the cell membrane of the receiving neuron<\/li>\n<li>Terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles filled with <strong>neurotransmitters <\/strong>o = Chemicals that allow neurons to send a signal across the synapse to another neuron<\/li>\n<li>When a neurotransmitter fits into receptor site of receiving neuron, message can be sent<\/li>\n<li><strong>Reuptake<\/strong> = released neurotransmitters that remain in the synapse are taken back into the presynaptic neuron<\/li>\n<li>Key neurotransmitters in psychopathology: dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) o Serotonin &amp; dopamine \u2013 depression, mania, schizophrenia o Norepinephrine \u2013 communicates with sympathetic NS, high arousal \uf0e0 anxiety disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine are excitatory o GABA \u2013 inhibits nerve impulses\uf0e0 anxiety disorders<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Agonist<\/strong> = drug that stimulates a particular neurotransmitter\u2019s receptors<\/li>\n<li><strong>Antagonist<\/strong> = drug that works on a neurotransmitter\u2019s receptors to dampen the activity of that neurotransmitter<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Structure and Function of the Human Brain<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Corpus callosum<\/strong> = band of nerve fibres that connects the two cerebral hemispheres, allows them to communicate<\/li>\n<li><strong>Gray-matter<\/strong> = (cortex) thin outer covering of the brain, composed of neurons (6 layers) o <strong>Gyri<\/strong> = ridges, <strong>Sulci<\/strong> = depressions between the ridges *define cerebral lobes<\/li>\n<li>4 main lobes: frontal (reasoning, problem solving, emotion, working memory), parietal (sensoryspatial, temporal (discrimination of sound), and occipital (vision)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Prefrontal cortex<\/strong> = very front of the cortex, helps to regulate the amygdala and is important in many different disorders<\/li>\n<li><strong>White matter<\/strong> = large tracts of myelinated fibres that connect cell bodies in the cortex with those in the spin cord and in other centres lower in the brain<\/li>\n<li><strong>Basal ganglia<\/strong> = nuclei located deep within each hemisphere, help regulate starting\/stopping motor and cognitive activity<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ventricles<\/strong> = cavities in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid<\/li>\n<li><strong>Thalamus<\/strong> = relay station for all sensory pathways except olfactory, pass onto cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>Brain stem<\/strong> = comprised of the pons, and the medulla oblongata, functions as a neural relay station<\/li>\n<li><strong>Pons<\/strong> = connects cerebellum with spinal cord and motor areas of cerebrum<\/li>\n<li><strong>Medulla oblongata<\/strong> = main line of traffic for tracts from spinal cord (up) and higher centres of brain (down)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cerebellum<\/strong> = receives sensory nerves from vestibular apparatus (ear) and from muscles, tendons and joints *balance, posture, equilibrium, and smooth coordination<\/li>\n<li><strong>Limbic system<\/strong> = involved in the visceral and physical expression of emotion, and expression of appetitive and other primary drives<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Anterior cingulate o Septal area o Hippocampus (memory)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Hypothalamus (metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleep, appetite) o Amygdala (Emotion) *emotional psychological problems\n<ul>\n<li>Key brain structure for psychopathology researchers due to role in attending to emotionally salient stimuli &amp; in emotionally relevant memories<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Brain development begins in first trimester<\/li>\n<li><strong>Pruning<\/strong> = process of eliminating a number of synaptic connections *fewer and faster connections \uf0b7 Cerebellum and occipital lobe develop the quickest<\/li>\n<li>Frontal lobe develops last The Neuroendocrine System<\/li>\n<li><strong>Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis <\/strong>(<strong>HPA<\/strong>) = central to the body\u2019s response to stress, and stress figures prominently in many psyc disorders<\/li>\n<li>Hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) when faced with threat<\/li>\n<li>CRF communicates with the pituitary gland, releases hormone that travels to adrenal gland<\/li>\n<li>Adrenal cortex promotes the release of hormone <strong>cortisol <\/strong>\u2013 the stress hormone o Takes 20-40 minutes for cortisol release to peak\n<ul>\n<li>Takes up to an hour for cortisol levels to return to baseline<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Autonomic nervous system<\/strong> (<strong>ANS<\/strong>) = operates very quickly, without our awareness, beyond voluntary control o Innervates the endocrine glands, the hearth, and smooth muscles<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>1) <strong>Sympathetic NS<\/strong> = prepares body for fight\/flight (heart rate, dilates pupils, inhibits intestinal activity, increases electrodermal activity)<\/p>\n<p>2) <strong>Parasympathetic NS<\/strong> = helps calm down the body o Involved in anxiety disorders (panic, PTSD)<\/p>\n<p>The Immune System\/Neuroendocrine System<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Psychoneuroimmunology<\/strong> = studies how psychological factors impact the immune system<\/li>\n<li>Immune system contains many cells and proteins that respond when the body is infected\/invaded<\/li>\n<li><strong>Natural immunity<\/strong> = body\u2019s first and quickest line of defense against infections microorganisms\/invaders *releases cells on invaders to destroy them o Results in inflammation\/swelling<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cytokines<\/strong> = help initiate bodily responses to infection (fatigue, fever, activation of HPA axis)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Release of cytokines stimulated by activation of macrophages (cell released) \uf0b7 <strong>Specific immunity<\/strong> = cells respond more slowly to infection (lymphocytes \uf0e0 t-helper and b cells), involved in responding to specific pathogens or invading agents o T-helper cells promote the release of cytokines o B cells release antibodies<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Stress directly effects the immune system (prenatal stress can even affect her offspring)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Interlukin-6<\/strong> = cytokine that promotes inflammation in response to infection, linked to human diseases and psyc disorders (MDD)<\/li>\n<li>Exposure to stress also slows process of wound healing<\/li>\n<li>Risk of harmful immune response to stress increases with age<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Neuroscience Approaches to Treatment<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Use of psychoactive drugs and antidepressants has been increasing *alter neurotransmitter activity<\/li>\n<li>Antidepressants are the 3<sup>rd<\/sup> most commonly prescribed medications for any type of health issue<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Increase neural transmission in neurons that use serotonin as a neurotransmitter by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Benzodiazepines used for anxiety to stimulate GABA to inhibit other neural systems that create physical symptoms of anxiety<\/li>\n<li>Antipsychotic drugs reduce activity of neurons that use dopamine as neurotransmitter by blocking receptors<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Evaluating the Neuroscience Paradigm<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Reductionism<\/strong> = the view that whatever is being studied can and should be reduced to its most basic elements of constituents o g. when scientists try to reduce complex mental and emotional responses to biology<\/li>\n<li>The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, breaking it down into pieces doesn\u2019t mean understanding it fully<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>The Cognitive Behavioural Paradigm<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Cognitive behavioural paradigm<\/strong> = rooted in learning principles and cognitive science<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Influences from Behaviour Therapy<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Problem behaviour is likely to continue if it is reinforced *to alter behaviour, modify consequences<\/li>\n<li>Reinforced by 4 consequences: getting attention, escaping from tasks, generating sensory feedback, gaining access to desirable things\/situations<\/li>\n<li><strong>Time-out<\/strong> = individual is sent for a period of time to a location where positive reinforcers are not available<\/li>\n<li><strong>Behavioural activation <\/strong>(<strong>BA<\/strong>) <strong>therapy<\/strong> = helping a person engage in tasks that provide an opportunity for positive reinforcement (used to treat depression)<\/li>\n<li><strong>In-vivo<\/strong> = in real life situations (type of exposure therapy) *opposite, \u201cimaginal exposure\u201d<\/li>\n<li>Criticized for minimizing the importance of thinking and feeling<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Cognitive Science<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Behaviourism criticized for ignoring thoughts and emotions<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cognition<\/strong> = groups together the mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning<\/li>\n<li>How people structure their experiences, how they make sense of them and how they relate their current experiences to past ones<\/li>\n<li><strong>Schema<\/strong> = cognitive set used to fit new information into an organized network of already accumulated knowledge *we actively interpret new info<\/li>\n<li>Focuses on studying human attention<\/li>\n<li>Stroop task (colour names written in different colour ink, asked to label them as the ink colour, not the word)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The Role of the Unconscious<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Familiarity affects judgments of stimuli<\/li>\n<li><strong>Implicit memory<\/strong> = the unconscious may reflect efficient info processing rather than being a repository for troubling material o A person can be influenced by prior learning without remembering<\/li>\n<li>People with social anxiety and depression often have trouble with implicit memory tasks<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Cognitive Behaviour Therapy<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>CBT<\/strong> = incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes<\/li>\n<li>Pays attention to private events (thoughts, perceptions, judgments, self-statements)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cognitive restructuring<\/strong> = changing a pattern of thinking *changes in thinking can change feelings, behaviour &amp; symptoms<\/li>\n<li>Beck\u2019s Cognitive Therapy:\n<ul>\n<li>Cognitive therapy for depression<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Based on idea that depressed mood is caused by distortions in the way people perceive life experiences *distorted thinking<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>g. focus exclusively on negative happenings, ignore positive ones o Goal: to provide people with experiences, both inside\/outside the therapy room, that will alter their negative schemas, enabling them to have hope rather than despair<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Information processing bias *attention, interpretation, and recall of negative &amp; positive information biased in depression<\/li>\n<li>Helps patients recognize and change maladaptive thought patterns<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Evaluating the Cognitive Behavioural Paradigm<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Some cognitive explanations do not appear to explain much<\/li>\n<li>The thoughts are given causal status \uf0e0 negative thoughts cause sadness of depression<\/li>\n<li>Focus is on current determinants of disorder o Childhood and other historical antecedents given less attention \uf0b7 Are distorted thoughts the cause of result of psychopathology?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Factors That Cut Across the Paradigms<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Emotion, sociocultural, and interpersonal factors<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Emotion and Psychopathology<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Emotions influence how we respond to problems and challenges in our environment<\/li>\n<li>Help us reorganize our thoughts and actions<\/li>\n<li>85% of psyc disorders include disturbances in emotional processing<\/li>\n<li><strong>Emotions<\/strong> = short-lived states, lasting for a few seconds\/minutes\/hours o Expressive, experiential and physiological components o Expressive\/behavioural \u2013 facial expressions o Experiential\/subjective \u2013 how someone reports he\/she feels at a given moment o Physiological \u2013 changes in the body (autonomic NS)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Moods<\/strong> = emotional experiences that endure for a longer period of time<\/li>\n<li><strong>Ideal affect<\/strong> = the kinds of emotional states that a person ideally wants to feel<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sociocultural Factors and Psychopathology<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Sociocultural factors: gender, culture, ethnicity, SES *may increase vulnerability to psychopathology<\/li>\n<li>Environmental factors can trigger, exacerbate, or maintain the symptoms that make up the different disorders<\/li>\n<li>Some disorders affect men and women differently (depression 2x common in women as men) \uf0b7 Poverty is a major influence on psychological disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Interpersonal Factors and Psychopathology<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Quality of relationships (family, marital, social support)<\/li>\n<li>Trauma, serious life events, and stress<\/li>\n<li><strong>Object relations theory<\/strong> = stresses the importance of long-standing patterns in close relationships, particularly within the family, that are shaped by the ways in which people think and feel o Object refers to another person (in most versions)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Attachment theory<\/strong> = the type\/style of an infant\u2019s attachment to his\/her caregivers can set the stage for psychological health or problems later in life o John Bowlby &amp; Mary Ainsworth\n<ul>\n<li>Securely attached \u2013 likely to grow up psychologically healthy o Anxiously attached \u2013 likely to experience psychological difficulties<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Relational self<\/strong> = the self in relation to others o People will describe themselves differently depending on what other close relationships they have been asked to think about<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Interpersonal Therapy (IPT):\n<ul>\n<li><strong>IPT<\/strong> = emphasizes the importance of current relationships in a person\u2019s life and how problems in these relationships can contribute to psychological symptoms<\/li>\n<li>1) Unresolved grief o 2) Role transitions o 3) Role disputes<\/li>\n<li>4) Interpersonal\/social deficits <strong>Diathesis-Stress: An Integrative Paradigm<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Most disorders are likely to develop through an interaction of neurobiological and environmental factors<\/li>\n<li><strong>Diathesis-stress paradigm<\/strong> = integrative paradigm that links genetic, neurobiological, psychological and environmental factors *multiple causal factors<\/li>\n<li>Introduced as a way to account for multiple causes of schizophrenia o Diathesis (disease), stress (environment\/life disturbances **may occur at any point after conception)\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Diathesis<\/strong> = predisposition towards illness\/any characteristics a person has that increases his\/her chance of developing a disorder<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Both diathesis and stress are necessary in the development of disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Psychopathology is unlikely to result from the impact of any single factor<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Paradigm = a conceptual framework or approach within which a scientist works \u2013 that is, a set of basic assumptions, a general perspective, that defines how to conceptualize and&hellip; <a class=\"continue\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/abnormal-psychology\/current-paradigms-in-psychopathology\/\">Continue Reading<span> Current Paradigms in Psychopathology<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[104],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4181"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4181"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4181\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4912,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4181\/revisions\/4912"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4181"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4181"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4181"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}