{"id":4185,"date":"2018-09-18T17:10:34","date_gmt":"2018-09-18T21:10:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/?p=4185"},"modified":"2018-09-18T17:27:45","modified_gmt":"2018-09-18T21:27:45","slug":"research-methods-in-psychopathology","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/abnormal-psychology\/research-methods-in-psychopathology\/","title":{"rendered":"Research Methods in Psychopathology"},"content":{"rendered":"<p><strong>Science and Scientific Methods<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Science<\/strong> = the systematic pursuit of knowledge through observation<\/li>\n<li><strong>Theory<\/strong> = a set of propositions meant to explain a class of observations o Goal to understand cause-effect relationships<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o A good theory is falsifiable *allows for disconfirmation<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Hypotheses<\/strong> = expectations\/predictions about what should occur if a theory is true o Must be able to be systematically tested o Focus is on disproving rather than proving<\/li>\n<li>Scientific approach requires that theory and hypothesis are stated precisely<\/li>\n<li>Scientific observations must be replicable<\/li>\n<li>Use assessments with strong validity and reliability to make replication possible <strong>Approaches to Research Psychopathology <\/strong>The Case Study<\/li>\n<li><strong>Case study<\/strong> = most familiar method of observing human behaviour, involves recording detailed info about one person at a time o Covers: developmental milestones, family history, medical history, educational background, employment history, marital history, social adjustment, peer\/romantic relationships, personality, environment, etc.<\/li>\n<li>Lack control and objectivity *validity is questionable<\/li>\n<li>Clinician\u2019s paradigm will shape the kinds of info reported in a case study<\/li>\n<li>Uses: (1) provide rich description of a clinical phenomenon, (2) disprove an allegedly universal hypothesis, (3) generate hypotheses that can be tested through controlled research<\/li>\n<li>Limitations: paradigm may influence observations, cannot rule out alternative explanations, cannot prove hypotheses<\/li>\n<li>Case Study as a Rich Description:\n<ul>\n<li>Includes much more detail that other research methods o Provide detailed description of how a new intervention works \uf0b7 Case Study Can Disprove but Not Prove a Hypothesis:<\/li>\n<li>Do not provide good enough evidence in support of a particular theory, don\u2019t provide a way to rule out alternative hypotheses<\/li>\n<li>Data collected from case study doesn\u2019t allow to determine true cause of change \uf0b7 Using Case Study to Generate Hypotheses:<\/li>\n<li>Helps to generate hypotheses for causes\/treatments for disorders<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The Correlational Method<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Correlational method<\/strong> = variables are measured as they exist in nature<\/li>\n<li>Different from an experiment during which a variable is manipulated<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Rely on correlational method when cannot do an experiment for ethical reasons<\/li>\n<li>4 shapes: positive linear, negative linear, curvilinear, (increases in one variable have both increases and decreases in other), no relationship (straight line) \uf0b7 Measuring Correlation:\n<ul>\n<li>Step 1: obtain pairs of observations of the 2 variables in question o Step 2: determine correlation strength using correlation coefficient (r)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Measures magnitude and direction of relationship \uf0a7 Higher the absolute value, the stronger the relationship \uf0b7 Statistical and Clinical Significance:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Statistical significance<\/strong> = asserts that a correlation was unlikely to have occurred by chance\n<ul>\n<li>Less than 5 in 100 (due to chance)<\/li>\n<li><strong>Alpha level<\/strong> = level of significance, p &lt; .05<\/li>\n<li>Higher r = less likely to have occurred by chance o Not statistically significant correlation does not provide evidence for an important relationship<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Statistical significance influenced by size of relationship between variables AND sample size o <strong>Clinical significance<\/strong> = defined by whether a relationship between variables is large enough to matter<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Problems of Causality:\n<ul>\n<li>Correlational designs do not allow determination of causality<\/li>\n<li><strong>Directionality problem<\/strong> = inability to determine which variable has causal significance o Causes must precede effects *temporal precedence<\/li>\n<li><strong>Longitudinal design<\/strong> = researcher tests whether causes are present before a disorder has developed\n<ul>\n<li>Studies participants over time o <strong>Cross-sectional design<\/strong> = the causes and effects are measured at the same point in time o <strong>High-risk method<\/strong> = only evaluates those at high risk for developing the target problem<\/li>\n<li>Reduces the cost of longitudinal method o <strong>Third-variable problem<\/strong> = a third factor might have produced the correlation *confound* o <strong>Confound<\/strong> = a variable that produces changes in the 2 correlated variables \uf0b7 One Example of Correlational Research: Epidemiological Research:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Epidemiology<\/strong> = study of the distribution of disorders in a population o Data are gathered about rates of a disorder and its correlated in a large sample o Focuses on 3 features of a disorder:\n<ul>\n<li>1) <strong>Prevalence<\/strong> \u2013 the proportion of people with disorder either currently or during their lifetime<\/li>\n<li>2) <strong>Incidence<\/strong> \u2013 the proportion of people who develop new cases of the disorder in some period, usually a year<\/li>\n<li>3)<strong>Risk factors<\/strong> \u2013 variables that are related to the likelihood of developing the disorder o Usually are correlational<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Designed to be representative of the population<\/li>\n<li>g. National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (large scale national survey, uses structured interviews to collect info on prevalence of several diagnoses) \uf0b7 Behaviour and Molecular Genetics:<\/li>\n<li><strong>Behavioural Genetics<\/strong> = methods to determine genetic predisposition (concordance) to psychopathology o 3 methods to uncover whether a genetic predisposition for psychopathology is inherited: \uf0a7 1) Comparison of members of a family, 2) comparison of pairs of twins, 3) investigation of adoptees<\/li>\n<li><strong>Family method<\/strong> = used to study genetic predisposition among family members\n<ul>\n<li>*Average number of genes shared by 2 blood relatives is known<\/li>\n<li>1<sup>st<\/sup> degree share 50%, 2<sup>nd<\/sup> degree share 25%<\/li>\n<li><strong>Concordance<\/strong> = co-occurrence or similarity of diagnosis<\/li>\n<li><strong>Index cases<\/strong>\/<strong>probands<\/strong> = persons with the diagnosis in question o <strong>Twin method<\/strong> = monozygotic and dizygotic twins are compared<\/li>\n<li>MZ (identical) \u2013 develop from 1 egg, genetically the same<\/li>\n<li>DZ (fraternal) \u2013 develop from separate eggs, share 50% genes<\/li>\n<li>When MZ concordance is higher than DZ concordance, characteristic is heritable o <strong>Adoptees method<\/strong> = studies children who were adopted and reared apart from their biological parents<\/li>\n<li>Stronger evidence that a disorder is genetic if biological parents and child (who was not raised by bio parents) both have disorder<\/li>\n<li><strong>Cross-fostering<\/strong> = children are adopted and reared apart from their biological parents<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Adoptive parent has a disorder\n<ul>\n<li>Molecular Genetics:<\/li>\n<li><strong>Association study<\/strong> = researchers examine the relationship between a specific allele and a trait\/behaviour in the population *precise measurement<\/li>\n<li><strong>Genome-wide association studies <\/strong>(<strong>GWAS<\/strong>) = examines entire genome of a large group of people to identify variations between people\n<ul>\n<li>Require very large samples<\/li>\n<li>Most often look for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>The Experiment<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Experiment<\/strong> = involves random assignment of participants to conditions, the manipulation of an IV and the measurement of a DV o Provides info about a causal relationship o Can evaluate treatment effectiveness o <strong>Experimental effect<\/strong> = differences between conditions on the DV \uf0b7 Internal Validity:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o <strong>Internal validity<\/strong> = the extent to which the experimental effect can be attributed to the IV o <strong>Control group<\/strong> = does not receive experimental treatment<\/p>\n<p>\uf0a7 Shows effects in other group are due to IV o Random assignment helps ensure groups are similar on variables other than the IV \uf0b7 External Validity:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>External validity<\/strong> = the extent to which results can be generalized beyond the study \uf0b7 Treatment Outcome Research:<\/li>\n<li><strong>Treatment outcome research<\/strong> = designed to address whether or not treatment works o Moderately positive effect of treatment (75% have some sort of improvement) o Treatment study should include:\n<ul>\n<li>Clear definition of the sample being studied e.g. description of diagnoses<\/li>\n<li>Clear description of treatment being offered (in a manual)<\/li>\n<li>Inclusion of a control\/comparison treatment method<\/li>\n<li>Radom assignment<\/li>\n<li>Reliable\/valid outcome measures<\/li>\n<li>Large enough sample for statistical tests<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o <strong>Randomized controlled trials<\/strong> (<strong>RCTs<\/strong>) = studies in which clients are randomly assigned to receive active treatment of a comparison<\/p>\n<p>\uf0a7 IV is treatment, DV is patient outcome<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Defining the Treatment Condition: The Use of Treatment Manuals:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Treatment manuals<\/strong> = detailed books on how to conduct a particular psyc treatment o Provide specific procedures for therapist to follow at each stage of treatment o Help therapist achieve greater uniformity in how they conduct therapy \uf0b7 Defining Control Groups:<\/li>\n<li><strong>No-treatment control group<\/strong> = allows researchers to test whether the mere passage of time helps as much as treatment does<\/li>\n<li><strong>Placebo<\/strong> = a pretend treatment, uses the power of suggestion, allows researchers to control for expectations of a symptom relief<\/li>\n<li><strong>Active-treatment control group<\/strong> = researchers compare new treatment against a well-tested treatment<\/li>\n<li><strong>Double-blind procedure<\/strong> = psychiatrists and patient are not told whether the patient received active medication or placebo *reduces bias in evaluating outcomes<\/li>\n<li><strong>Placebo effect<\/strong> = a physical or psyc improvement that is due to the patient\u2019s expectations of help rather than to any active ingredient in a treatment \uf0b7 Defining a Sample:<\/li>\n<li>Often there is a failure to include people from diverse cultural\/ethnic backgrounds o People from minority groups are about half as likely to receive mental health treatment \uf0b7 Assessing How Well Treatments Work in the Real World:<\/li>\n<li><strong>Efficacy<\/strong> = whether a treatment works under the purest of conditions o <strong>Effectiveness<\/strong> = how well the treatment works in the real world \uf0b7 The Need for Dissemination of Treatment Outcome Findings:<\/li>\n<li><strong>Dissemination<\/strong> = the process of facilitating adoption of efficacious treatments in the community<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 Most typically by offering clinicians guidelines about the best available treatments along with training on how to conduct those treatments \uf0b7 Analogue Experiments:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Analogue experiment<\/strong> = investigators attempt to create\/observe a related phenomenon (an analogue) in the laboratory to allow more intensive study<\/li>\n<li>Can obtain results with good internal validity, less external validity o Single-Case Experiments:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 <strong>Single-case experiments<\/strong> = experimenter studies how one person responds to manipulations of the IV *high internal validity<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Lack of external validity<\/li>\n<li>Just because treatment works for one person doesn\u2019t mean it will work for another<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\uf0a7 <strong>Reversal design <\/strong>(<strong>ABAB design<\/strong>) = participant\u2019s behaviour must be carefully measured in a specific sequence (baseline, treatment intro, reinstatement of baseline, reintroduction of treatment)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>No control group, but time period of baseline serves as control aspect<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Integrating the Findings of Multiple Studies<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Meta-analysis<\/strong> = thorough literature search, followed by putting together all the results into a common scale, using effect size<\/li>\n<li>Criticism: sometimes include studies of poor quality<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Science and Scientific Methods Science = the systematic pursuit of knowledge through observation Theory = a set of propositions meant to explain a class of observations o Goal to&hellip; <a class=\"continue\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/abnormal-psychology\/research-methods-in-psychopathology\/\">Continue Reading<span> Research Methods in Psychopathology<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[104],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4185"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4185"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4185\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4185"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4185"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4185"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}