{"id":4536,"date":"2018-10-27T14:17:41","date_gmt":"2018-10-27T18:17:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/?p=4536"},"modified":"2019-05-25T23:20:14","modified_gmt":"2019-05-26T03:20:14","slug":"positive-emotions","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/positive-psychology\/positive-emotions\/","title":{"rendered":"Positive Emotions"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1>A Brief (Recent) History<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Around 2011<\/li>\n<li>Some high-profile fraud<\/li>\n<li>Multi-study paper on ESP in top journal<\/li>\n<li>Some attention to failed replication studies<\/li>\n<li>Longer history of &#8216;gossip&#8217;<\/li>\n<li>&#8216;False positive psychology&#8217; and &#8216;p-hacking&#8217; o Incomplete, selective, or biased reporting<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Keep adjusting studies in order to achieve significant results<\/p>\n<p>Questionable research practices &#8211; adding people, dropping\/adding conditions, changing hypothesis, etc.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Researcher Incentives<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Pressure\/rewards for publication o More is better o New\/novel is better o Faster is better o Null results not welcome \u2022 Jobs, funding, status at stake<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Testing Replicability<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>The Reproducibility Project o Select representative sample of studies (2008) o Pair study with new researcher o Consult original researcher for details o Publicly record detailed plans o Collect new data &amp; analyze results<\/li>\n<li>Goal: to estimate the rate of reproducibility in psychology<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Main goal of the Reproducibility Project &#8211; are they able to be replicated\/repeated?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Results<\/h1>\n<p>About 1\/3 &#8211; 1\/2 studies found the original results<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Effect sizes were about 50% of original reports<\/li>\n<li>Cognitive psychology appeared more replicable than social psychology<\/li>\n<li>Results generally viewed as disappointing<\/li>\n<li>Not unique to psychology<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Main Finding: 1\/3 to 1\/2 are able to be reproduced<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>What Explains Non-Replication?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Original result due to chance (p &lt;.05)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The replication attempt could also be due to chance<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Original result inflated, (partly) due to questionable practices<\/li>\n<li>Mistake or bias in replication attempt<\/li>\n<li>Different context, culture, psychological situation, or other boundary condition<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If a study shows different results &#8211; there might be something else going on besides what was hypothesized<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Why All This Can Be Positive<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Quantifies\/estimates reproducibility rate o But what rate is ideal?<\/li>\n<li>Suggests value in reform<\/li>\n<li>Motivates better practices<\/li>\n<li>Is very &#8216;scientific&#8217;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Exercise of &#8216;asking the hard questions&#8217; in scientific questions is very scientific<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Ways Forward<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>More cautious view of published findings<\/li>\n<li>Test potential moderators in new studies o e. discover what the result &#8216;depends on&#8217;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The results will depend on factors (moderators) such as location, gender, etc.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>More open science practices o Make materials, procedures, data available o Pre-register study &amp; analysis plans<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Make a distinction that&#8217;s very exploratory<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Better methods o g. larger sample sizes, carefully chosen measures<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Conventional wisdom about how many people should be in studies Ability to create designs to find better results<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Reward replication efforts o Funding, prizes, status<\/li>\n<li>Most of this has already begun<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Positive Emotions<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Comparative neglect in emotion research<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Easy to forget how often we have pleasant emotions<\/p>\n<p>People experience tons more pleasant experiences than negative ones<\/p>\n<p>Emotional experiences are more pleasant than unpleasant &#8211; although it\u2019s the negative thoughts that stick<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>What is an Emotion?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Contrasting emotions with o Sensations or bodily pleasure<\/li>\n<li>Appraisal; physical stimuli<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Moods<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Aboutness, timeframe<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Emotions: things that you feel relatively short periods of time<\/p>\n<p>Moods: more long-lasting, not clearly about something (something doesn&#8217;t have to happen to put in a specific mood &#8211; not always) Long-term running average<\/p>\n<p>Less about something and tend to last longer o Dispositions<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Timeframe, even more so<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Averages over time &#8211; dispositions o Affect<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A more general term<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>General: mood\/sensation has some degree of pleasant\/unpleasantness<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Views of Emotion<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Basic Emotions View(s) o Distinct face, physiology, appraisal, etc. o Universality, cross-culture &amp; species<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Clear lists (joy, sadness, fear, anger, disgust..)<\/p>\n<p>Strong evolutionary &amp; ecological notions<\/p>\n<p>Notions are discrete, separate things &#8211; own facial expressions<\/p>\n<p>Each of these things has its own part of the brain designated to the emotion<\/p>\n<p>Clear lists: these are the basic emotions (6 in modern science)<\/p>\n<p>In the moment &#8211; dispositions<\/p>\n<p>Basic emotion &#8211; universal across all cultures<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dimensional View(s) o Organized based on similarity o More general &#8217;causes&#8217;<\/li>\n<li>Approach &amp; avoidance; pleasantness &amp; activation Applies more to moods and longer term states<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Take the emotions and arrange them in a sensible space<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>What is an Emotion?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Multiple, loosely coupled components<\/li>\n<li>Functional, evolutionary perspective prominent<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Evolutionarily old and functionable &#8211; why do we feel sad? Why should we feel pride?<\/p>\n<p>Should have been helpful, or we wouldn&#8217;t have it &#8211; even unpleasant emotions have useful functions<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Appraisal<\/li>\n<li>Physiological change In our brain and bodies<\/li>\n<li>Expression (facial, posture, etc.)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Easily regulated &#8211; not always observed as they&#8217;re occuring<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Subjective experience<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>What our emotions feel like to us<\/p>\n<p>Action tendency (motivation shifts)<\/p>\n<p>Emotions get us to do something<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>But, basic vs. dimensional views here Fits well with the basic emotional view<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>An Emotion: when some of these things some together<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Appraisal<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Cognitive Component<\/li>\n<li>Quick assessment o Good or bad for me? o Can I cope?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Who\/what is responsible?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Can explain differences in experience<\/li>\n<li>Provides &#8216;core themes&#8217; for distinguishing emotions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Tell us &#8211; does a nice job at mapping it out<\/p>\n<p>Articulates what that emotion is really about<\/p>\n<p>How we make sense of our emotions\/experiences<\/p>\n<p>All judgments create a map of emotions and connections<\/p>\n<p>Need to make sense of the world before we can have a reaction<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Physiological Change<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Peripheral ANS o g. EDA, HR, breath, finger temperature<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Cf. James-Lange Theory o Undoing hypothesis<\/p>\n<p>Measure with polygraphs<\/p>\n<p>Getting pretty good at linking up electro-dermal activity with different kinds of arousal<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Brain o EEG and hemispheric asymmetry<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Measures electricity coming off brain &#8211; captured brain waves essentially<\/p>\n<p>Left H &gt; Right H &#8211; associated with positive states (approach states &#8211; notion of desire)<\/p>\n<p>Problem: brain is sitting under bone &#8211; not easy to find where the signal is coming from o fMRI &amp; PET correlates<\/p>\n<p>Better job at figuring out where activity is coming from in the brain<\/p>\n<p>Emotions &#8211; commonly tucked in the middle<\/p>\n<p>Through comparison where we find what positive emotions means\/differences that exist o Wanting vs. liking<\/p>\n<p>Addiction: becomes so much of a wanting that there isn&#8217;t much enjoyment coming from it<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Distinct signatures?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Parts of the brain aren&#8217;t always associated with certain emotions<\/p>\n<p>Question: how is the brain structured in terms of emotions? Can&#8217;t assume 1 to 1 relationship<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Expressions<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Face o FACS, EMG<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Can feel and not have it shown &#8211; not an automatic output<\/p>\n<p>Facial Acting Coding System (FACS): code for specific muscle contracting &#8211; use combination in a very detailed way to describe a facial reaction<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Posture<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Ex. Pride<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Sounds &amp; Vocalization<\/li>\n<li>Touch<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Ex. Affection, gratitude, sympathy &#8211; touch to convey the emotion<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Action Tendencies<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Motivation to do<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Thing that you&#8217;re getting ready to do &#8211; getting you ready for something<\/p>\n<p>Ex. Seeing a bear &#8211; quick fear emotional reaction<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Seems more clear for unpleasant emotions<\/li>\n<li>Motivates the broaden &amp; build model<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Broaden &amp; Build Theory<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Whereas action tendencies of unpleasant emotions narrow focus<\/li>\n<li>Positive emotions broaden focus<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Make lots of behaviours\/thoughts for us<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>This then builds resources for the future<\/li>\n<li>Examples\n<ul>\n<li>Joy: play, creativity<\/li>\n<li>Interest: exploration, new information o Contentment: savouring, applying o Love: combines and focuses on other<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Explanation for how good positive emotions are &#8211; what is the point?<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Suggestive Evidence (Broaden)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Frederickson &amp; Branigan (2005)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Waugh &amp; Frederickson (2006)<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Study of new university roommates over time Self-other overlap<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Two circles that represent the closeness<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Complexity of other (&#8216;both traits&#8217;) More complexity in ourselves than others<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>One or both? More both answers = better relationship<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Daily positive emotions<\/li>\n<li>Building social resources?<\/li>\n<li>Whelan &amp; Zelenski (2012)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Some Nuance Needed?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Gable &amp; Harmon-Jones (2008)<\/li>\n<li>Role of &#8216;approach motivation&#8217; o g., funny cats vs. delicious desserts; amusement vs. desire<\/li>\n<li>Local vs. global processing tasks<\/li>\n<li>Results: high approach motivation, pleasant emotion (desire) narrowed attention<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Expanding List of Positive Emotions<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Joy<\/li>\n<li>Love<\/li>\n<li>Pride<\/li>\n<li>Contentment<\/li>\n<li>Interest<\/li>\n<li>Amusement<\/li>\n<li>Awe<\/li>\n<li>Gratitude<\/li>\n<li>Inspiration<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><u>More Positive States &amp; Time<\/u><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Today\u2019s goals:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Mini review: Positive emotions<\/li>\n<li>Continue discussion of positive emotions<\/li>\n<li>Understand the \u2018knowledge emotions\u2019 o What they are o How to distinguish them o Why they matter<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Noba textbook chapter &#8211; assigned<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Briefly, other positive emotions\/states o Humor<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Flow<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Consider how we predict and recall emotions<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Mini Review: Emotions \u2022 What is a \u2018basic emotion\u2019?<\/p>\n<p>Distinct emotions &#8211; list of things<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>How does the dimensional approach differ from the basic emotions approach? Dimensional: less clear where the boundaries lie &#8211; no distinct physiological signatures Basic Emotions: the feeling &#8211; you are <em>x<\/em><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Knowledge Emotions<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Some overlap with \u2018broaden &amp; build\u2019 ideas o Yet, that theoretical background not used here Come to similar conclusions<\/li>\n<li>Knowledge emotions promote learning o Surprise o Interest\n<ul>\n<li>Confusion<\/li>\n<li>Awe<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Surprise<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Fast, typically short duration<\/li>\n<li>Interrupts attention<\/li>\n<li>\u2018Fills the mind\u2019<\/li>\n<li>Simple appraisal of unexpectedness<\/li>\n<li>Motivate learning (usually quickly resolved)<\/li>\n<li>Not really positive or negative<\/li>\n<li>Has a distinct facial expression<\/li>\n<li>(not the most interesting of emotions?)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>After it has passes &#8211; try to make sense of what has happened<\/p>\n<p>Makes us gather information &#8211; learn more things about the environment<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Interest<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Typically experienced as pleasant<\/li>\n<li>Follows appraisals of novelty + comprehensible New + ability to figure it out<\/li>\n<li>Promotes exploration (mental too) Physical + mental exploration<\/li>\n<li>Essential to \u2018intrinsic motivation\u2019 Do things because we want to do them<\/li>\n<li>Thus leading to superior learning<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>People learn more when they are interested<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Related to trait curiosity, Openness<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Experience a lost of interest &#8211; motivate them<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Confusion<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Experienced as unpleasant<\/li>\n<li>Follows appraisal of novelty, complexity, incomprehensible<\/li>\n<li>Still promotes learning o g., impasse driven learning<\/li>\n<li>Interest vs. confusion can depend on prior knowledge<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h1>Awe<\/h1>\n<ul>\n<li>Less frequent<\/li>\n<li>Typically experienced as (very) pleasant<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Can also be followed with fear &#8211; pleasant feelings are maybe experienced after the fact once the brain has figured out what&#8217;s going on<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Follows appraisal of vast inconsistency and attempt at accommodation<\/li>\n<li>Common sources are art, music, nature<\/li>\n<li>Often inspires desire to learn more o (e.g., NASA image of the day; science education) Also related to Openness<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><em>Summary of knowledge emotions<\/em><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>Similarity with Humor?<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Benign violation approach o Notice conflict with expectation or \u2018ought\u2019 o See the conflict as non-threatening (benign) o Realize both things simultaneously o If you\u2019re curious:<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o <u>https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ysSgG5V-R3U<\/u><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Flow<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>\u2018Discovered\u2019 via subjective experience across many domains (art, chess, athletics, etc.)<\/li>\n<li>Similar to intrinsic motivation<\/li>\n<li>Occurs when challenge and ability matched<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sweet spot: challenge and ability are balanced and well matched<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Mostly \u2018unconscious\u2019 at the time<\/li>\n<li>Compared to \u2018junk flow\u2019 o Satisfaction, value (absorption w\/o challenge?)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Junk flow does not follow with the same amount of satisfaction<\/p>\n<p>Value is a subjective thing (can be subjective)<\/p>\n<p>We don&#8217;t all agree on one universal aspect of values<\/p>\n<p>Common state of total absorption &#8211; across multiple domains<\/p>\n<p>You are doing something because you enjoy it &#8211; something you truly want to do Pleasurable state in retrospect<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Wirtz et al. like assignment #1<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>What are the key ideas covered in the introduction?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o \u2018Online\u2019 experience vs. recalled experience<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>experiencing self vs. remembering self [clip]<\/li>\n<li><u>http:\/\/www.ted.com\/talks\/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory?language=en<\/u><\/li>\n<li>\u2018Objective\u2019 vs. \u2018Subjective\u2019 experience<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Objective-subjective experience: as experienced in the moment<\/p>\n<p>Subjective-subjective experience: comes later<\/p>\n<p>Remembering: keeps score, remembers aspects of your self Experiencing: happens in the moment<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Which of these predict future choices? o Suggestions that it may be remembered experience<\/li>\n<li>What were the main goals of this research?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Study a more \u2018real world\u2019 context over longer time period (cf. previous lab studies) o Assess predictions, online experience, and remembered experience; compare them o See which predict future intentions<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>What were [the major constructs and method features]?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o PA, NA, and overall enjoyment<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Predicted (2 weeks &amp; 2-4 days before trip)<\/li>\n<li>Experience (7 times daily)<\/li>\n<li>Remembered (2-4 days &amp; 4 weeks after trip) o Future choice item (5 weeks after trip)<\/li>\n<li>What are the main [results]? o Predictions and recall \u2018better\u2019 than experience<\/li>\n<li>What are the main [results]?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Remembered most related to future choice<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>What is the main conclusion of the paper?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Actual experience less intense than predicted and remembered (note positive and negative)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Many \u2018neutral\u2019 moments neglected?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o Remembered emotions predict choices<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>What are implications of this research?\n<ul>\n<li>Objective experience not necessarily more useful<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>What kind of trip to choose?<\/li>\n<li>How to structure experiences (e.g., colonoscopy-like things)?<\/li>\n<li>What is one important limitation of this research?\n<ul>\n<li>Small, unrepresentative sample; matters how?<\/li>\n<li>Non-behavioural \u2018choice\u2019<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Others?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Wirtz et al. Wrap-up<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>We can distinguish between predicted, experienced, and remembered emotions<\/li>\n<li>Although related, the differences may be important Remembered emotions may predict choices<\/li>\n<li>Which should we try to maximize?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Affective Forecasting<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>\u2018Predicted emotions\u2019 have spawned much research in recent years<\/li>\n<li>Notion that prediction errors impede happiness maximization<\/li>\n<li>A few systematic errors found<\/li>\n<li>Some additional, idiosyncratic errors found<\/li>\n<li>Impact bias o Tendency to over-estimate intensity or duration of emotional reactions o g., Pregnancy tests, tenure decisions, sports games, elections, exams, loss aversion (gambling), etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Outcome wasn&#8217;t very different between decisions o Immune neglect: under-estimating all we do to cope with bad experiences (cf., adaptation)<\/p>\n<p>Underestimating psychological immune system<\/p>\n<p>Don&#8217;t foresee how to cope with situations o Focalism: failing to consider the \u2018full picture\u2019<\/p>\n<p>o Some method concerns about understanding of questions (\u2018in general\u2019 vs. event)<\/p>\n<p>Immune neglect and focalism are two reason for why impact bias may exist &#8211; more specific reasons<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>A few other kinds, examples:<\/li>\n<li>Interacting with stranger vs. partner<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Forced to be more pleasant to make a good first impression &#8211; overall better mood<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Talking to stranger on bus, taxi, subway<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>If you try to connect with random strangers, makes you feel happier<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Insult by friend vs. stranger Stranger would be worse<\/li>\n<li>Items with return policy or not<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Happier with purchases when we&#8217;re not able to return them &#8211; inability to change<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Walking in tunnels vs. near river at CU<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Students over estimated the difference in scenery<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>(less prone to critiques about questions)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Participants are not usually wrong about the direction, but rather the duration and intensity<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h2>Affective Forecasting Errors<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Do these fit in positive psychology? o Why or why not?<\/li>\n<li>Should we try to correct them?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>o If so, how would you do that?<\/p>\n<p>Maybe we make these errors because it steers us in the direction of the right answers<\/p>\n<p>Could have a lasting change that would be much better if corrected<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Why do we make them?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A Brief (Recent) History Around 2011 Some high-profile fraud Multi-study paper on ESP in top journal Some attention to failed replication studies Longer history of &#8216;gossip&#8217; &#8216;False positive psychology&#8217;&hellip; <a class=\"continue\" href=\"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/positive-psychology\/positive-emotions\/\">Continue Reading<span> Positive Emotions<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":[],"categories":[116],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4536"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4536"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4536\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4838,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4536\/revisions\/4838"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4536"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4536"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.amyork.ca\/academic\/zz\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4536"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}