Developmental Psychology ­ the study of age­related changes in behavior and mental processes from conception to death

  • 3 major issues o Nature VS Nurture
    • Nature (maturational) approach­ development proceeds in an orderly fashion and is the result from genetics
    • Nurture (experience) approach­ emphasizes the importance of the environment for development

 As a result of personal experience

  • Continuity and Discontinuity
    • Continuity­ development as gradual, additive process without sudden change
    • Discontinuity­ development as discontinuous, qualitative transformations  Describes behavior in terms of stages­ the next stage is different from the previous one
  • Stability and Change
    • Early experience view­ experiences of infancy as especially important for later development
    • Later experience view­ early experiences are important to development but no more important than later experiences
  • Interactionist Perspective­ look at relative views of each aspect
    • Development is a result of a complex interplay between nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and early and later experience.
    • Do not strongly believe in just one extreme
    • Reaction range­ range of genetic possibilities

 Environment decides where you fall in the range

 Research Methods

  • 2 main types o Cross­sectional research­ studying people of different ages all at one time o Longitudinal research­ studying the same group of people for a long period of time
  • Problems

Cross sectional studies have cohort effects­ differences that result from specific histories of the age group studied

  • Historical trends effect age groups differently o Longitudinal studies are expensive, both in time and money.
  • Attrition­ loss of research participants over time

 Start with big sample

 May have problems with generalizability

 Prenatal development

  • 3 main phases o Germinal phase­ 1st 2 weeks after conception
    • Creation of zygote
    • Cell division
    • Attachment of zygote to uterine wall o Embryonic Period­ 2­8 weeks after conception
    • Rate of cell division increases
    • Support systems for the cells form
    • Organs appear­ organogenesis
    • Mass of cells attached to uterine wall forms 2 layers­ “embryo”

Endoderm­ inner layer­ develops into digestive and respiratory systems

Mesoderm­ middle layer­ develops into circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory and reproductive system

Ectoderm­outer layer­ develops into the nervous system and sensory receptors (ears, nose, eyes, skin)

o Fetal Period­ 2 months after conception, lasts for 7 months

  • Fetus rapidly gaining weight
  • Fine detailing of body organs and systems

 Teratogens ­ agent that produces a malformation or raises the population incidence of malformation

  • Thalidomide­ 1st teratogen­ used to cure morning sickness o Phocomelia­ “seal like” birth defects
  • Severity of damage dependent on 3 factors
  • Dose response­ greater the does, greater the effect
  • Time of exposure­ certain stages of embryonic and fetal development are more vulnerable than others
    • 1st trimester more vulnerable than 2nd and 3rd o Genetic susceptibility­ variation in maternal metabolism of a particular drug will determine what metabolites the fetus is exposed to and the duration of exposure.
    • Genetic susceptibility of fetus to a particular teratogenic agent will have an effect on final outcome
    • Fetus­ some genotypes more susceptible to damages
    • Pregnant woman­ how fast/slow metabolism is

 Substance break down rate

  • Types of teratogens o Fetal Alcohol Syndrome­ group of abnormalities in babies born to mothers who consume alcohol during pregnancy.
  • Most common non­genetic cause of mental retardation in US
  • Estimated that 3/1000 babies will have FAS  Rate may be 3 times higher in some populations
  • Causes:

 Alcohol broken down more slowly in immature body of fetus than in an adult’s body­ alcohol levels remain high and stay in baby’s body longer

 FAS usually occurs in babies born to alcoholic mothers, or those who drink more than 4­5 drinks/day

 Dependence and addiction in mother also cause the fetus to become addicted­withdrawal may begin within a few hours after birth and symptoms may last up to 18 months

 Specific deformities of head, face, heart defects, mental retardation seen with FAS  Treatment:

 US FDA designated specific drugs for treating symptoms of withdrawal from alcohol in babies

 No treatment for lifelong birth defects and retardation

 100% preventable­ don’t drink o Nicotine

  • Smoking during pregnancy estimated to account for 20­30% of low birth weight babies, 14% preterm deliveries, 10% of all infant deaths

 

  • Odds of developing asthma are twice as high among children whose mothers smoke more than 10 cigarettes a day
  • Between 400,000­1 million asthmatic children have their condition worsened by exposure to secondhand smoke
  • Smokers inhale nicotine and CO which reach the baby through the placenta and prevent the fetus from getting the nutrients and oxygen needed to grow

 Infant growth Patterns

  • Cephalocaudal pattern­ greatest development takes place at top of body and moves gradually downwards
  • Proximodistal pattern­ growth starts at the center of the body and moves towards the extremities

 Brain Development

  • At birth­ ~ 100 billion neurons, 50 trillion synapses
  • 1st 3 months­ synapses multiply more than 20 times
  • 3 year old­ twice as many connections as adults o Pruning­ removal of connections that are not used

 Motor Development

  • Infant reflex­ involuntary response to a particular stim.

o Important because:

  • Protective
  • Provide instincts
  • Development of voluntary movements
  • Diagnosing abnormalities o Types:
  • Blinking­ response to sudden air pressure/light change
  • Babinski reflex­ toes fan out and go back
  • Crawling
  • Moro’s Reflex (startle reflex)­ sudden loss of support

 Throw head and arms back with arms grabbing

 Evolutionary trait

  • Palmar and Plantar grasp­ grab something placed in palm/arch  Important for attachment
  • Sucking reflex­ nurse if something placed in mouth
  • Rooting reflex­ stroke the side of face, turn to nurse

 Senses:

  • Vision­ infants can see even at birth, though a range of 20/400­ 20/600 o Robert Fantz­ infants demonstrate wide variety of visual preferences
    • Sharp outlines with lots of contrast
    • Complex patterns with curvy elements
    • Moving objects
    • Human face

o Tracking­ focus attention on moving object and follow it

  • Hearing­ babies can hear even before birth o Prefer songs/voices heard in utero­ Mozart effect o Motherse/child­directed speech­ helps gain language
    • Increased tone
    • Sing­song voice
    • Repetitive
    • Slowly, annunciate clearly
  • Touch­ very important for bonding­emotional health o Pressure can help calm babies down

o Newborns suck fingers because lips and fingers have many touch receptors­self soothing

  • Taste­ highly sensitive o Favorite flavor­ sweet
  • Smell­ acute­ can pick out mother’s breast pad by smell

 Attachment ­ strong affectional/emotional bond with special others(primary care giver) that endures over time

  • Ainsworth and Freud­ 2 researchers

o Mother/baby sets stage for all future relationships

  • Theoretical roots:
    • Evolutionary psychology­ infants are motivated to seek out the attention and proximity of adults for their survival
      • Cannot do anything for themselves­ want protective force
      • Corresponding motivation for adults to care for children
      • Neotenous features­ distinguish adults from juveniles

 Lets us know they are young and need care/protection

  • Psychoanalytic orientation­ early experience with caregivers lead to the formation of “working models” of the self and of the attachment figure.
    • Caregivers accessibility and level of care and one’s feelings about ones deservedness of that care, will have implications for future judgments of the self and relationships with others
    • Bowlby­ “significant risk of psychopathology later in life should attachment become inconsistent/ < satisfactory
    • Freudian interpretation­looks at interactions o Behaviorist View­ Hulls drive reduction model
    • Feeding is basis for attachment
    • Mother satisfies baby’s hunger drive­ becomes a learned drive
    • Look at primary drive of hunger
    • Harlow’s infant rhesus monkey studies

 2 mothers­ 1 covered in wire, 1 in terry cloth

 Even when only fed by wire mother, monkeys preferred cloth monkeys

 Contact/comfort seemed more important than feeding

 Social deficits

  • Attacked for no reason, cower
  • Males raped
  • Females abandoned/abused infants

 Feeding as basis of attachment in humans

 Cannot perform same study­ unethical

 Naturalistic observation­ babies become attached to people who rarely feed them­ comfort over food

 Toddlers separate from attachment figures tend to form attachment to something soft and cuddly­ teddy,blanket

  • Ainsworth’s Strange situation­ 8 stages to measure the level of attachment beween infant and carefiver o Infant and caregiver are briefly introduced to playroom o Parent and child play alone in the room o Stranger enters room and plays with baby o Parent leaves, baby alone with stranger o Parent returns and stranger leaves o Parent leaves, child alone o Stranger returns
    • Parent returns, stranger leaves
  • Major Attachement Types o Securely­attached infants­ use mom as secure base
    • Social referencing­ check in with mom before doing something
    • Little fuss when left alone
    • Happy to see mom return o Insecure­avoidant infants­ ignore mom
    • May not notice leaving
    • Avoid attempts to interact with mom o Insecure­anxious/ambivalent­ preoccupied with mom
    • Never leaves mom’s side
    • Fuss when leave
    • Mad when mom returns but wants to be picked up
    • Mom is unpredictable= constant focus o Insecure­disorganized/disorientated­ not securely attached but does not fit well in other categories
  • Effects of Institutional Care and Neglect/Abuse o Affectionless characters­ not able to bond to others
    • Use others for own ends
    • Hurt without guilt

o Reactive Attachment Disorder­ result of severe neglect/abuse

 Adolescence ­ ages 10­20

  • Puberty­ biological changes during adolescence that lead to an adult­sized body and sexual maturity o Menarche­ 1st cycle occurs about 2 years into puberty

o Adolescent growth spurt­ adolescent gains a lot of height, weight, and skeletal growth

  • Asynchronous­ different parts hit at different times
  • Starts in extremities

 Parenting Styles ­ kind of practices that parents exhibit in relation to their children and effects

of practices.

  • 2 main dimensions o Demandingness­ degree to which parents set down rules/expectations of behavior and require children to comply

o Responsiveness­ degree to which parents are sensitive to children’s needs and express love, warmth, and concern

  • Terms for parenting styles­ Diana Buamrind o Authoritative­ high in both dimensions
    • Clear behavior rules
    • Know consequences
    • Emotional give­take­ willing to discuss
    • Most positive outcome­ high self esteem, relationships o Authoritarian­ high in demandingness, low in responsiveness
    • Strict rules
    • Do not express love, concern
    • Rely on “because I said so”
    • 2 types of children

 rebellion

 dependent­ cannot make own choices

  • more likely to use physical violence in/out of home
  • Indulgent­ low in demandingness, high in responsiveness
    • Do not enforce behavior standards
    • Spoiled­ not prepared for frustrations/responsibilities o Indifferent­ low in both dimensions
    • Minimize time/amount put into parenting
    • Impulsive, delinquents­ do not care what they do and cannot foresee consequences
  • US families o Indifferent most common­ 37% o Authoritative 32% o Authoritarian/Indulgent­ 15% each
  • Parenting Effects are reciprocal/bi­directional o Children’s reactions change parents parenting styles

 Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory ­ series of stages

  • Definitions o Schema­ cognitive structures or patterns consisting of a number of organized ideas that grow and differentiate with experience
    • Change over time
    • Becomes more complex as we think differently o Adaptation­ individual’s ability to fit into or adapt to the environment. Occurs via balancing 2 complimentary activities
    • Assimilation­ absorbing new information into existing schemas

 Close to what you already know

 Does not change the way you think

 Lab and chichuia EX

  • Accommodation­ adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new information

 Pushes cognitive development

 Previous way does not allow new information

 Dog and Cat EX

  • Stages
    • Sensorimotor Development­ babies are learning to coordinate their mother reactions with sensory input/environment
      • Not thinking­ do not have language yet
      • Get control over body to get information from environment
      • Object permanence­ they realize that just because something is out of their sight doesn’t mean it no longer exists

 Teddy bear under blanket EX

  • Preoperational Stage­ tremendous increase in representational ability
    • Symbolic representational ability­ objects can be represented by symbols

 Developing in language

  • Mistakes in Logic

Egocentrism­ inability to compare perspectives

  • Do not understand others experience the world differently
  • Shared consciousness

Animism­ inanimate objects are alive

Syncretism­ belief that unrelated events are related in some way

  • Usually because they occur at the same time

o Concrete­operational stage­ reasoning becomes more flexible, logical, organized, and more powerful

  • Limited­ can only think about concrete information
  • Do not reason about abstract concepts
  • Use more scientific reasoning o Formal operational stage­ ability to “operate on operations” because adolescents and near­adolescents can now think abstractly
  • Abstract, logical, idealistic
  • Adolescent egocentrism­ problem comparing perceptions o Personal fable­ belief they are unique
  • Leads to characteristic adolescent behavior
  • Keeping dairy, taking risks o Imaginary audience­ belief they are center of attention
  • Everyone looks at you/judges you

Both fade away with time but do not go away­ our way to keep order